DARI HATI

Adanya saat ku termenung
Saat kesendirian menyelimuti hati
Aku tulis segala kesedihan
Yang kini tersimpan dalam benak kalbu

Entah apakah yang terpikirkan . . .
Aku ingin bercerita walau hanya sepatah kata
Aku ingin berkata walau hanya sebuah kalimat

Kisah indah yang kini tinggal kenangan
Sebuah harapan, saat pertama mengenal dirinya
Seorang gadis yang pernah mengisi relung hati
Kini pergi dan tak akan kembali

Pedih yang kurasakan . . .
Apakah ini suratan takdir . . .
Sepanjang hidup percintaan yang pernah terjadi
Semua kisah indah yang pernah aku alami
Walau hanya terbatas dan tak terikat janji abadi

Tuhan . . . . .
Berilah aku kekuatan
Aku tak mudah tuk mengakuinya
Aku tak mudah tuk mengatakannya
Aku mencintainya
Aku sangat mencintainya

NASKAH DRAMA "RAHASIA"

Karya ANTUNG FIRMANDANA

 PARA TOKOH:

1. Pak Gatot : seorang pria berusia 42 tahun, pengusaha kaya, memiliki rambut pendek rapi, kumis yang tebal, memakai kacamata, agresif dan pandai merayu wanita.
2. Ibu Maria /Istri Pak Gatot : seorang wanita berusia 40 tahun, badan sedikit gemuk, sombong, angkuh, dan pencemburuan.
3. Mona/Anak Pak Gatot : seorang gadis berusia 17 tahun, masih SMA, anak semata wayang, manja, sombong, mudah marah dan sangat mencintai ayahnya.
4. Beti / Gay : pria gemulai berusia 23 tahun, pacar pak Gatot, tinggi sedang, rambut cepak, pakai bando dan bawa kipas di tangan, centil dan berpenampilan mencolok, pacar pak Gatot.
5. Ririn /Sekertaris Pak Gatot : seorang wanita karier berusia 25 tahun, cantik, rambut panjang, tinggi sedang, badan semok, pandai merayu dan selingkuhan pak Gatot
6. Rika /Mahasiswi) : seorang remaja 20 tahun, cantik, rambut sedang, berpenampilan sederhana, manja, agresif, pacar Pak Gatot.
7. Pak Jarot/Ayah Rika : seorang pria berusia 42 tahun, berbadan besar, brewokan, dan pemarah.



 SETTING:

Panggung di bagi menjadi 2 tempat. Tempat pertama adalah ruang tamu sebuah rumah dimana terdapat sofa/kursi mewah di dalamnya yang menghadap penonton. Tempat kedua adalah sebuah taman kota dimana muda-mudi bisa memadu kasih, disana terdapat kursi panjang, taman bunga kecil, lampu taman yang menghadap ke penonton.


SINOPSIS

Kisah yang menceritakan tentang rahasia yang dimiliki oleh Pak Gatot. Pak Gatot memiliki banyak kekasih dari berbagai kalangan. Dia berusaha menutupi hal itu dari keluarganya namun disisi lain kekasih-kekasihnya menuntut pertanggung jawaban mengenai status mereka. Akankah rahasia Pak Gatot akan terbongkar.
Saksikanlah…

BABAK I
(Setting menggambarkan sebuah rumah, nampak Pak Gatot dan sekretarisnya Ririn sedang mabuk dalam kenikmatan cinta, lampu biru perlahan menyala menyorot kursi tamu diiringi musik)

1.Ririn : Apakah istri bapak tidak curiga. Nanti kalau kita ketahuan berdua disini kan bisa berbahaya pak? (tanya Ririn dengan gelisah)
2.Pak Gatot : Tenang saja. Istriku masih lama pulangnya. Dia masih sibuk dengasn urusan-urusannya. Mona juga jam segini masih di Sekolah dan sore nanti baru pulang. Kita masih bisa menggunakan waktu ini untuk bersenang-senang. (Gatot meraba-raba punggung Ririn)
3.Ririn : Baiklah kalau begitu. (perlahan Ririn melepas pakaiannya lampu biru menerangi mereka berdua). Ah..ah..ah..ah..ah.. (terdengar suara mendesah dan jeritan Ririn saat melakukan hubungan badan dengan bos Pak Gatot di balik kursi tamu, nampak kursi berdencit bergoyang dengan pakaian berhamburan diatasnya, lalu kemudian lampu biru padam)
4. Pak Gatot : Kau memang sangat hebat Rin, kau mampu memuaskan hasratku yang telah lama terpendam, tidak seperti istriku yang selalu sibuk dengan arisan-arisannya serta urusan lain. Dia tidak bisa memuaskanku, tetapi kau mampu melakukannya dengan sempurna (sambil mencolek dagu Ririn dengan lembut).
5. Ririn : Tidak juga. Serangan Bapak memang sungguh luar biasa, saya saja hampir tidak bisa bernafas tadi. (jawab Ririn dengan halus sambil merapikan pakaian kerjanya).
6. Pak Gatot : Nampaknya kau sangat hebat bisa menahan serangan dariku? (Pak Gatot memulai pembicaraan dengan Ririn sambil mengancingkan baju putih lengan panjangnya, lalu merapikan pakaiannya)
7. Rinrin : Bapak terlalu berlebihan memuji saya. Apakah kita tidak sebaiknya kembali ke kantor Pak. Jam makan siang sudah selesai. (Ririn melihat jam tangannya). Nanti jam 2 siang kita ada rapat dengan bapak Walikota di kantor.
8.Pak Gatot : Ok. Kita berangkat sekarang. Sebaimya kita tidak mengecewakan Bapak Walikota. Lain kali kita akan lanjutkan lagi senang-senangnya.
9. Ririn : Dengan senang hati pak. Kapanpun Bapak mau, saya selalu siap. (jawab Ririn dengan senyum, lampu perlahan padam diiringi musik).
BABAK II
(Setting menggambarkan sebuah taman kota, nampak Beti sedang duduk di kursi taman menunggu kedatangan pak Gatot, lampu perlahan menyala diiringi musik)

10. Beti : (Beti sedang duduk santai di kursi taman memakai bedak dipipinya lalu menggunakan lipstik) Aku sudah keliatan cantik seperti cleopatra. Manasih si yayang kumis. Kok lama banget datangnya (Beti mengluarkan kipas dari dalam tasnya) Padahal eke kan sudah dandan cantik-cantik (Beti duduk di kursi sambil melihat jam di tangannya)
11. Pak Gatot : (Pak Gatot muncul dari samping panggung membawa setangkai bunga buat pacarnya. Dia mendekati Beti secara perlahan) Apa kabar sayangku Beti? (Beti melihat ke belakangnya, lalu membuang muka karena kesal menunggu Pak Gatot yang datang terlambat) kenapa?
12. Beti : Kok lama banget sih, akukan sudah tungguin disini dari tadi. (Beti bicara dengan nada kesal)
13. Pak Gatot : Maaf sayang tadi aku ada banyak urusan di kantor. Tapi aku kan sekarang sudah datang dan berada didekatmu. Apakah kamu tidak kangen? (Pak Gatot merayu Beti)
14. Beti : Mulai deh jurus gombalnya keluar. (Beti tak menghiraukan perkataan Pak Gatot)
15. Pak Gatot : Tidak sayang. Aku tidak gombal. Aku janji tidak akan datang telat lagi.
16.Beti : Benar ya. Janji yayang kumis tidak datang telat lagi?
17. Pak Gatot : Iya. Yayang kumis janji tidak akan datang telat lagi. Sekarang Beti liat dong apa yang yayang kumis bawa ( Pak Gatot menujukkan setangkai bunga dan sebuah gelang buat Beti)
18. Beti : Wah.. cantik sekali bunganya. Dan gelangnya bagus. Makasih ya. Yayang kumis. (Beti mencium pipi pak Gatot tanda bahagia) jadi hari ini kita jalan kemana?
19. Pak Gatot : Bagaimana kalau kita ke Mall aja. Shoping. Ke salon, terus nanti kita nonton film di bioskop..? Gimana?
20. Beti : Wah boleh juga itu judulnya aja lucu. Ayo kita berangkat. (Beti dan Pak gatot keluar panggung dengan berangkul mesra, lampu perlahan padam diiringi musik).


BABAK III
(Setting menggambarkan sebuah taman kota, nampak Rika sedang duduk sambil memencet tombol telepon genggannya di kursi taman, lampu perlahan menyala diiringi musik)

21. Rika : Dimana sih dia. Kok lama banget ngga ada muncul-muncul. (Rika berjalan mondar-mandir di sekitar taman)
22.Pak Gatot : (Datang dari belakang menutup mata Rika) Apakabar sayang? Sudah lama ya, nungguinnya?
23.Rika : (Rika melepas pegangan tangan pak Gatot lalu duduk di kursi taman) Mas kok lama banget sih. Janjinya kan jam 2. Sekarang sudah jam 3. Telat 1 jam nih.
24.Pak Gatot : Iya. Sayang. Mas minta maaf. Tadi ada meeting ketemu klien dari luar kota. Jadi maafin ya kalau sedikit terlambat
25.Rika : (Rika menunjukkan semua jari tangannya) Ini kan sudah ke 10 kalinya mas datang terlambat terus. Masa masih terlambat juga sih.
26.Pak gatot : Ya. Sayang. Mas minta maaf lain kali mas janji datang tepat waktu. Mas tidak akan bohong.
27.Rika : Beneran ya. Kalau bohong atau ingkar janji pokoknya akan dapat sangsi dari Rika. Kalau tidak, jangan pernah hubungin atau mengajak Rika ketemuan lagi.
28.Pak Gatot : Jangan dong sayang. Pokoknya mas janji tidak akan datang telat lagi. (Pak Gatot memelas)
29. Rika : Harus. Pokoknya sekarang ada sangsinya. Dan sangsinya adalah mas harus belikan Rika sebuah mobil. Masa punya cowok kaya raya seperti mas Gatot tapi pacarnya naik angkot. Tidak etis dong. Apa kata orang-orang. (Rika memarahi pak Gatot)
30. Pak Gatot : Ya. Sudah. Pokoknya kalau mas datang terlambat lagi. Mas belikan Rika mobil deh.
31.Rika : Loh kok nanti sih mas. Rika mau mas belikan mobil sekarang. (Rika menatap Pak Gatot dengan kesal)
32.Pak gatot : Aduh..sekarang mas tidak bawa uang. Besok aja ya. Pokoknya mas janji besok belikan Rika mobil baru
33. Rika : Beneran ya. Pokoknya awas kalau bohong. Nah sekarang mas harus temanin aku. Banyak yang ingin Rika beli nih. Kita ke mall yuk belanja terus nonton deh..
34. Pak Gatot : Yang penting Rika bisa memuaskan Mas Gatot. Dan mas akan penuhi semua keinginan Rika.
35. Rika : Ya sudah. Kalau begitu kita jangan buang waktu lagi. (Mereka berdua bergandengan tangan keluar panggung)

BABAK IV
(Setting menggambarkan ruang tamu rumah keluarga Pak Gatot yang sedang berduka karena kepergian pak Gatot secara tiba-tiba, tampak Ibu Maria dan anaknya Mona sedang dudu disamping jenazah Pak Gatot, terdengar suara tahlil, lampu perlahan menyala diiringi musik yang sedih dan memilukan)

36.Bu Maria : (Menangis tersedu karena di depan jenazah suaminya pergi) Bapak....tega sekali bapak meninggalkan kita berdua disini. Mana janji bapak yang akan menjaga kami berdua selamanya. (Bu Maria mengusap air matanya dengan tisu)
37. Mona : (Menangis penuh haru) Bapak...siapa yang akan melindungi kami pak. Siapa yang akan temanin Mona belajar, ambil raport ke sekolah, ngajarin Mona main musik. Kalau tidak ada bapak Siapa...jangan pergi pak...jangan tinggalin Mona pergi... (Ririn masuk dari pintu tamu)
38.Ririn : (Ririn datang dalam keadaan hamil 4 bulan langsung mendekati mayat pak Gatot sambil menangis). Bapak... kenapa bapak cepat sekali meninggalkan Ririn...
39. Bu Maria : Siapa kamu kok tiba-tiba masuk ke rumah lalu menangisi jenazah suami saya?
40.Ririn : (Ririn berbicara sambil menangis) Pak Gatot adalah kekasih saya. Saya telah hamil 5 bulan dan anak yang ada dalam kandungan saya adalah anaknya Pak Gatot.
41. Bu Maria : (Terkejut) Apa!! Kau pasti berbohong. Tidak mungkin. Kau pasti ingin mengambil kesempatan untuk mengambil harta keluarga kami.
42.Ririn : Tidak. Saya tidak bohong. Saya adalah sekretaris bapak di kantor. Dan kami telah menjalin hubungan cinta selama setahun. (Saat Ririn dan Bu maria berdebat tiba-tiba Beti datang dari pintu menjerit dengan histeris, lari mendatangi mayat Pak Gatot
43. Beti : (Beti menangis meraung-raung) Mas kumis, kenapa mas kumis meninggalkan Beti. Beti sayang dengan mas kumis. Beti cinta sama mas kumis. Jangan tinggalin Beti mas...jangan pergi...
44. Bu Maria : Apa lagi ini.? Heh ngapain kamu nyelonong masuk ke rumah saya. Siapa kamu ini.? Datang-datang menangisi jenazah suami saya.??
45. Beti : Saya Beti pacarnya mas kumis. Saya sudah berpacaran dengannya selama setahun ini. Saya terkejut mendengar kematian mas kumis.
46. Mona : Apa!!! Kebohongan apa lagi ini. Kau pasti salah orang. Ayahku itu laki-laki normal. Tidak mungkin menyukai orang aneh seperti mu.
47. Ririn : Hehh dasar banci kaleng. Kamu pasti berbohong. Kamu itu orang gila nyasar. Datang-datang mengaku pacar Pak Gatot. Dasar pendusta.
48. Beti : Apa kamu bilang... jangan sembarangan kalau bicara. Kamu itu yang pembohong. Dasar pelacur. Kamu pasti penjual diri di ponggir jalan. (Tiba-tiba percecokan mereka berhenti, pak Jarot masuk berteriak-teriak masuk ke rumah Bu maria membawa anaknya Si Rika)
49.Pak Jarot : Dimana si Gatot..dimana si Gatot...Dia harus bertanggung jawab atas kehamilan anak saya si Rika. (Rika tertunduk malu)
50. Bu Maria : Siapa anda mau apa datang kemari??
51. Pak Jarot : Saya kesini minta pertanggung jawaban si Gatot. Anak saya telah mengandung 3 bulan hasil hubungannya dengan Si Gatot.
52. Mona : Hehh kalau ngomong jangan sembarangan. Teriak-teriak lagi di rumah orang. Dasar laki-laki tua bangka tak tau diri. Rasakan ini. (Mona menedang selangkangan pak Jarot, diapun tersungkur kesakitan, seketika itu anaknya yang melihat ayahnya disakiti tidak terima)
53. Rika : Apa yang kamu lakukan. Mengapa kau menyakiti ayahku. (Rika lalu menjambak rambut Mona. Mereka berkelahi saling menjambak)
54. Ririn : Heh banci tadi kamu bilang aku pelacur. Kau itu dasar orang gila sinting. Rasakn ini. (Ririn berkelahi dengan Beti. Mereka saling menjambak dan mencakar)
55. Bu Maria : (Suasana rumah menjadi kacau tak terkendali, Bu Maria menjadi shock, dia berteriak) Berhenti...berhenti...berhenti kalin semua. (tiba-tiba Bu Maria memegang jantungnya. dia terkena serangan jantung lalu jatuh dan meninggal. Perkelahianpun berhenti. Mona langsung mendatangi tubuh ibunya yang tersungkur tak bernyawa).
56. Mona : (berteriak histeris) Ibu...ibu...ibu.... (lampu perlahan padam pertunjukkan selesai)

Ditulis di Samarinda, 04 Oktober 2009 pukul 09.19
Selesai di Samarinda, 07 Juni 2011 pukul 10.54

ADE YANG MALANG (Cerpen)

Karya Antung Firmandana

Semenjak aku duduk di bangku SMA orang tuaku sudah bercerai. Keluarga kami tidak harmonis. Papa yang merupakan pejabat penting di daerahku merupakan orang yang disegani pihak lawan dan kawan. Punya kenalan banyak. Mulai dari Preman kota samapai kaum elit politik. Hal itu membuat tingkat status sosial keluarga kami naik derajat. Silaunya jabatan serta harta membuat papa lupa daratan. Hidupnya menjadi rusak. Mulai dari main judi, mabuk-mabukan sampai dengan main perempuan. Tak jauh berbeda dengan mamaku seorang pengusaha busana wanita. Penjualan barangnya bahkan mencapai manca negara. Hidup yang mewah serta sering bepergian keluar kota. Membuatnya lupa akan keluarga. Aku tinggal dalam keluarga yang sukses dan tidak pernah kering oleh uang. Semua serba ada. Apa yang aku inginkan semuanya dipenuhi. Apapun. Namun semua itu tak ada artinya bagiku. Karena yang aku butuhkan hanyalah kasih sayang dan perhatian mereka. Rumahku tak ubahnya seperti arena pertempuran perang dunia.
”Kamu itu kemana aja,? pulang tidak jelas kapan harinya. Tiap hari keluyuran saja. Alasannya sibuk-sibuk terus. Anak kita kok tidak diurus-urus?” Papa marah sama mama.
”kok Papa bicara seperti itu sama mama. Coba liat diri sendiri pa. Apakah papa orang yang benar kok seenaknya menyalahkan mama. Papa sendiri pulang tidak jelas kapan harinya. Alasan rapatlah, meeting dengan klienlah, ketemu pejabatlah padahal papa itu selingkuhkan dengan skretris papa yang tinggi semok itu?” Mama marah membalas papa.
”Jangan sembarangan kalau bicara kamu ma. Yang jelas-jelas selingkuh itu kamu keluyuran tiap hari, Arisanlah, ke Tanah Abanglah, ketemu rekan bisnislah padahal mama selingkuh dengan Johan. Asisten mama itu.”
”Sembarangan? jelas-jelas papa selingkuh. Pulang bau alkohol. Main judi aja kerjaannya. Johan itu sangat membantu mama Dia itu Sarjana terbaik lulusan Fakultas Ekonomi. Nilainya saja cumlaude jadi wajar aku sangat membutuhkan tenanganya. Bukannya selingkuh kayak kamu?” Mama membalas.
”Dasar pembohong, penipu, pendusta. Aku tidak percaya dengan kata-katamu itu?” kamu pasti berzina dengan brondong itu. Kalau aku jelas-jelas rapat dengan Walikota, Bupati bahkan dengan Gubernur. Kau memang penipu. Sudahlah aku capek bicara denganmu, lebih baik aku berangkat kerja sekarang.” Papa pergi menghempas pintu rumah. Begitulah rumahku. Rumahku nerakaku. Pepatah itu yang sepertinya pas untuk keluarga kecil ini. Setiap kali bertemu peperangan terjadi dengan dahsyat. Tuduh menuduh, caci-maki sampai dengan sumpah serapah. Kedua kubu bak dua kutub berlawanan yang tak bisa disatukan. Mereka tak pernah tau perasaanku, habis bertengkar aku yang jadi tumbal. Sekolahku jadi hancur berantakan. Hingga akhirnya mereka berdua berpisah.

Saat orangtuaku cerai aku mulai tak terurus, awal mulanya aku ikut papa. Dia menikah lagi dengan seorang wanita, yang tak lain adalah sekertarisnya sendiri. Wanita itu yang membuat keluargaku semakin hancur. Awal mula tinggal dengan Ayah bersama ibu titi cukup menyenangkan. Aku selalu dimanja olehnya hingga lalu aku difitnah dengan keji karena dituduh mengambil perhiasannya. Papa marah besar padaku aku di hukum atas berbagai macam kesalahan yang tak pernah aku perbuat. Dan puncaknya adalah kejadian di suatu malam dimana dia memberikan aku obat tidur lalu meniduriku. Sungguh kebidaban yang tak termaafkan.
“kenapa papa tega melakukan ini pada Ade?” tanyaku sambil menangis diatas ranjang tanpa menggunakan sehelai pakaian dan hanya ditutupi selimut. Namun raut wajah Papa malah merasa tak bersalah justru tertawa bahagia.
“Sudahlah Papa tau kau pasti pernah tidur dengan pacarmu. Apa salahnya sekarang kau tidur dengan Papa” aku sungguh terkejut. Seseorang Ayah yang mestinya melindungi dan menjaga putrinya malah ia nodai tanpa rasa bersalah.
“Papa memang jahat, kejam, bajingan, tega-teganya Papa menodai Ade. Ade tidak pernah berhubungan dengan laki-laki manapun. Papa Iblis” Air mataku mengucur deras diringi marah yang membakar alam semesta. Papaku tiba-tiba marah besar dan dia menamparku.
“Diam kamu. Dasar pelacur. Kau tidak jauh beda dengan mamamu yang menjual dirinya pada lelaki hidung belang.” Dia memaki-maki seperti anjing buas yang menggong-gong. Lalu menjambak rambutku hingga jatuh ke lantai. Walaupun aku nakal. Aku tetap menjaga kehormatanku. Aku tak terima dengan segala perbuatannya padaku. Aku memutuskan untuk pergi meninggalkannya. Dalam hati aku mendendam. Aku tidak akan pernah menganggap dia sebagai ayahku lagi.

*****

Dengan pakaian yang hanya melekat dibadan aku pergi mendatangi mama. Memiliki sedikit bekal uang. Aku akhirnya sampai di rumah mama. Aku menceritakan tentang semua kemalangan dan rasa pahit yang ku alami saat tinggal bersama papa. Dia terharu dan merasa bersalah telah melepasku ke tangan serigala jahat itu. Dia berjanji untuk menjaga dan merawatku. Aku bersyukur mendapatkan perhatian serius dari mama walau dengan terpaksa aku harus melakukan aborsi untuk menutup aib keluarga yang memalukan. Dan pada saat itu aku berjanji untuk berubah dan menghapus masa kelamku. Aku akan memulai hidup baru dengan lembaran kisah baru.
Semenjak cerai mama tidak seperti dulu lagi. Seluruh harta dan aset-aset milik mama diambil oleh papa dan diberikan pada istri barunya. Hidupnya kini sederhana. Meskipun begitu kehidupanku cukup nyaman walau sederhana tak seperti di tempat papa dulu. Semua berjalan dengan bahagia tanpa ada masalah hingga di suatu petang sekelompok orang datang dengan mobil kijang kapsul hitam ke rumah kami mereka berbadan besar dan berwajah sangar dengan kalung perak menggantung di lehernya. Aku melihat mereka seperti anjing peliharaan. Dan dugaanku itu ternyata benar. Mereka adalah anak buah seorang lelaki tua yang aku kira adalah teman mamaku. Dia datang bertamu. Tanpa aku ketahui maksudnya, ternyata kedatangannya ke rumah kami adalah untuk menagih utang. Namanya adalah karman. Dia adalah seorang rentenir yang meminjamkan uang untuk mamaku. Awalnya bahasa yang dia pakai sangat baik dan sopan lalu kemudian menjadi kasar seperti orang tak berpendidikan. Aku mendengar percakapan mereka dari dalam kamar.
“Apa? Uangnya masih belum ada.” tanya karman dengan kesal.
“Berilah aku waktu beberapa bulan lagi. Aku akan melunasi semua hutangku.” Mama mengiba memelas kepadanya.
“aku sudah memberikanmu toleransi selama 6 bulan dan kau bilang masih belum punya uang untuk membayar.” Nada perkataanya semakin tinggi dan kesal.
“kau pembohong dasar pelacur” aku sangat marah mendengar dia menghina mamaku seketika itu pula aku keluar dari kamar menghinanya dengan lantang.
“Dasar kau laki-laki brengsek. kau itu bajingan. Beraninya kau memaki mamaku.” Tanganku mengayun ingin menamparnya namun secara tiba-tiba mama menahanku.
“cukup nak. Kau tidak sah ikut campur urusan mama.” Aku sangat terkejut mendengar mama mengatakan itu padaku.
“tapi ma, ade membela mama. Ade tidak terima mama dihina oleh orang macam dia.” Aku menjelaskan maksudku pada mama. mama menamparku secara tiba-tiba.
“Hutang kita banyak padanya nak. 30 juta rupiah. Kau tidak sepantasnya mengatakan itu kepada orang yang telah membantu kita.” Mama menjelaskan dengan sedih.
“Sudah cukup sandiwaranya” si karman memotong pembicaraan kami yang panjang. “Baiklah begini saja. Aku menawarkan solusi untukmu. Bagaimana kalau anakmu bekerja di sebagai pelayan di Diskotikku di pusat kota. Dia akan mencicil hutang-hutangmu dengan menjadi pelayan. Bagaimana?” tanya karman
“Kenapa tidak aku saja.” Mamaku menjawab.
“Kau tau pekerjaan menjadi pelayan itu berat mulai pagi sampai pagi lagi. Aku yakin kau tidak akan sanggup dan itu akan merugikanku, malah bisa menjadi beban.’ Jelasnya dengan panjang lebar. “Bagaimana? Kalau tidak aku akan menyita semua barang-barangmu dan kalian berdua akan hidup menjadi gembel selamanya.” Dia memberikan solusi yang sulit untuk kami terima.
“Beri aku waktu untuk menjawab.” Minta mamaku.
“Waktumu hanya 15 menit. Tangan anak buahku sudah gatal untuk mengambil semua barang-barangmu. jelasnya lagi. Kami berdua berdiskusi dengan sangat alot. Mama tak ingin melepaskanku kepada Karman. Akhirnya kepuusan dibuat. Aku bersedia membantu mama melunasi hutang-hutangnya pada Karman. Walau itu sangat berat untuk kami berdua karena tak akan bertemu untuk cukup lama.
“Baiklah. Tetapi kau tidak boleh menyakiti anakku. Dan aku bisa mejenguk dia?” mama memberikan persyaratan tambahan pada karman.
“Baik. Kita sepakat. Sekarang anakmu ikut denganku.” dengan beberapa lembar pakaian dalam tas punggung aku mengikuti Karman dan anak buahnya masuk ke dalam mobil kijang kapsul hitam untuk pergi menjadi pelayan di Diskotik miliknya. Rasanya penderitaan yang aku alami belum selesai. Apa lagi meninggalkan mama sendirian di rumah. Untungnya Mamaku diberi alamat tempat Diskotik dimana aku bekerja. Dia bisa menjengukku kapanpun kalau ada waktu. Aku merasa bahagia karena pada suatu saat akan bertemu lagi dengan mama walaupun aku yak tau itu kapan. Tuhan aku titip mama padamu. Jagalah dia dalam pelukan-Mu.

*****

Ternyata semua itu adalah kebohongan belaka. Semua kata-kata manis dan janji itu hanyalah tipuan untuk membuat mama menyerahkan aku padanya. Aku tidak menjadi pelayan Dikotik seperti yang dikatakannya. Saat dalam perjalanan mulut dan hidungku tiba-tiba dibekap sangat kuat hingga aku tak sadarkan diri beberapa jam kemudian. Saat bangun tidur, kepalaku terasa pusing dan aku merasakan hal aneh karena pakaian yang menempel di badanku telah hilang serta aku terbaring diatas ranjang. Aku bagai sepotong daging tak bernyawa yang menjadi santapan serigala kelaparan. Karman telah menodaiku.
“Dasar kau laki-laki bajingan Karman. Kau telah menghancukan harga diriku.”
“Ha..ha..ha..ha...untuk wanita cantik dan semok seperti kau sebetulnya tak pantas menjadi pelayan di Diskotik milikku. Pantasnya kau menemaniku diatas ranjang seperti sekarang ini. Kau baiknya jadi istri simpananku atau melayani tamu-tamu Diskotikku.”
“Aku tidak sudi menjadi milikmu atau milik siapapun.” Jawabku tegas.
“Baiklah kalau begitu. Kau akan menerima ganjarannya.” Dengan muka kesal dan marah dia keluar kamar dan membanting pintu lalu memanggil anak buahnya.
Kejadian ini yang membuatku jadi hancur berantakan. Aku bukan hanya ditiduri olehnya tetapi juga digilir oleh anak buahnya. Alamat yang diberikan kepada ibupun palsu. Semenjak itu aku menjadi anak yang bebas hidup tanpa batas moral dan waktu. Aku menjadi budak sex para lelaki di Diskotiknya. Hidupku terlihat bahagia. Mulai dari jalan-jalan, belanja ke Mall sampai pergi ke diskotik. Hidupku dipenuhi oleh uang. Hidup hanyalah untuk foya-foya dan sex. Dari sinilah awal kehancuranku. Mulanya coba-coba lalu suka terus ketagihan dan akhirnya jadi pecandu. Mulai dari minum Topi Miring hingga Vodka dan Wine. Mulai dari ganja hingga heroin. Semua makanan haram sampai orang bilang air kencing setan aku pernah mencobanya. Dan pada akhirnya aku masuk kelembah nista, lembah hina yang mungkin tidak akan pernah di maafkan oleh Tuhan. Aku pernah tidur dengan beberapa artis, pejabat, politisi, pengacara hingga orangtuaku sendiri. Sungguh begitu hinanya diriku. Wanita terkutuk macam apa aku ini. Berzina dengan para lelaki, suami orang bahkan dengan orang tuaku sendiri. Sungguh menjijikkan. Ingin sekali aku keluar dari semua kebusukkan ini, tetapi tubuhku terasa dirantai sangat kuat oleh sukar untuk melakukannya. Padahal aku ingin bebas.
Kini sudah lebih dari dua bulan aku terkurung di ruangan ini. Sendiri tanpa ada yang menemani. Rasanya aku sudah tak betah lagi. Tapi mau bagaimana lagi, penyakitku yang menular dan berbahaya membuat aku tidak boleh pergi kemana-mana. Pihak Rumah sakit mengurungku di ruangan isolasi. Aku tak bisa berbuat apa-apa, aku pasrah dengan infus dihidung dan tanganku. Setiap hari tubuhku semakin kurus. Akupun disuntik berbagai macam cairan berwarna warni. Aku langsung kejang-kejang. Sakit rasanya tak tertahankan. Ingin sekali suara dikerongkongan aku keluarkan tapi tak bisa. Hanya air mata yang keluar dari kelopak mataku. Mungkin memang ini kutukan yang harus aku terima karena kesalahan yang telah aku perbuat sendiri. Pergaulan bebas telah menjerumuskan aku ke dalam lembah kenistaan ini. Sungguh sangat memilukan. Andaikan saja waktu dapat diputar kembali. Ingin aku perbaiki semuanya. Semua tentang kisah hidupku yang hina ini. Andaikan saja waktu dapat di putar kembali, aku ingin semua ini tak terjadi. Aku harap ini adalah mimpi buruk dan aku segera bangun dari tidur segera.

Samarinda, 2 Juni 2011

KUTUKAN SEBUAH MAKAM (Cerpen)

Karya Antung Firmandana

Suasana sunyi senyap. lorong-lorong nampak terlihat sepi ditemani serpihan pijar lampu-lampu neon. Sementara itu waktu telah menunjukkan pukul 2 pagi. Udara dingin nampak sekali menyengat tubuh yang hanya dibalut kemeja coklat polos . Aku baru saja terbangun dari tidur yang panjang. Seluruh badanku terasa sakit seperti habis ditusuk jarum. Rasa ngilu tak tertahankan. Seketika itu aku mengerang dengan suara yang tak jelas. Nampak seorang wanita terbangun di kursi sofa lalu menghampiriku dengan cepat.
“Farid, kamu sudah siuman.” tanya seorang wanita mendekatiku.
“Tolong air…air…air.” kupaksa segenap kekuatan yang kumiliki untuk mengeluarkn satu kata berulang.
“Iya. Sebentar aku ambilkan.” jawab seorng wanita dengan sigap mengambil air yang telah tersedia di gelas dan meminumkannya padaku.
“Apa yang terjadi denganku? Dimana aku?” tanyaku pada wanita itu sambil memegang kepalaku yang masih terasa pusing serta pandangan yang sedikit kabur.
“Ini aku Laila adiknya Ahmad Husain. Kau tak sadarkan diri selama hampir 20 jam. Setelah kejadian di gua itu. Kau sekarang berada di rumahku.” Jawab Laila.
“Ahmad Husain.” Seketika memori ingatanku kembali mendengar nama sahabatku itu.
“Bagaimana keadaan Ahmad, apakah dia baik-baik saja?” Tanyaku pada Laila.
“Dia tewas terkubur di gua itu. Nampaknya dinamit yang kalian pakai berdaya ledak tinggi sehingga langit-langit gua itu runtuh dan menimpa kalian berdua. Pada saat itu aku hanya menemukanmu. Aku tak menemukan Ahmad. Dan aku yakin sekali Ahmad telah tewas terkubur bebatuan besar di gua itu.”Laila mulai bercerita dengan berair mata.
“Tidak mungkin, Prof. Ahmad Husain tidak mungkin tewas.” Aku kembali mengingat-ngingat kejadian itu. Dan sepertinya ada yang keliru.
“Tunggu dulu Laila, waktu itu kami belum sempat meledakan dinamit yang kami bawa. Tetapi memang waktu itu didalam gua terdengar suara gemuruh, seketika bebatuan yang ada di langit-langit gua berjatuhan dan setelah itu aku tak tau apa yang terjadi.
“Tidak. Dari luar terdengar suara ledakan. Aku medengarnya.” Jawab Laila sambil mengusap air matanya yang mengalir deras dengan tisu.
“Berarti ada orang yang sengaja meledakan gua itu. Ada yang ingin membunuh kami berdua. Tetapi mereka gagal. Tetapi siapa yang melakukan ini semua?” tanyaku dalam hati dengan bingung.
“Kriinnnnnnnnnnggg...kriinnnnnnnnnnnggg…kriinnnnnnnnggg.” tiba-tiba kami terkejut mendengar suara telepon dalam kamar menggema memecah kesunyian di pagi buta. Laila mengangkat telepon itu.
“Hallo, apakah benar saya bicara dengan nona Laila?” tanya suara seorang pria misterius dengan nada datar dari telepon.
“Benar. Siapa ini?” Jawab Laila dengan penasaran.
“Dengarkan suara ini.” sang pria misterius memberikan ganggang telepon pada seseorang yang berteriak.
“Laila jangan ikuti kata mereka. jangan beritau temat itu. tempat itu berbahaya, tempat itu telah dikutuk.” Suara seorang pria dari telepon.
“Hallo…kak, kak Ahmad dimana? Hallo…Siapa ini? Apa mau kalian?” Laila bertanya dengan tegesa-gesa namun tiba-tiba suara telepon berubah menjadi suara pria misterius.
“Nona Laila, Kakak anda sekarang berada bersama kami. Tenang saja keadaannya sangat baik. Dia sehat. Dan tidak kurang satu apapun. Sekarang dengarkan ini baik-baik, kami tau anda dan kakak anda sedang melakukan pencarian sebuah makam kuno di lembah raja-raja Luxor, makam seorang raja yang terlupakan dari Dinasti ke-18 Raja-raja Amarna. Permintaan kami sederhana. Datanglah ke lembah raja-raja Luxor pukul 18.00 sore ini. Ingat hanya anda seorang diri. Kami minta anda menunjukan tempat makam itu kepada kami lalu semuanya selesai. Dan kakak and akan bebas. Hanya itu. Ingat nona Laila, jika anda melaporkan hal ini kepada pihak kepolisian maka kakak anda tidak akan pernah bertemu dengan anda untuk selama-lamanya. Sampai jumpa.”
“Tunggu dulu. Hallo..hallo.” telepon ditutup. Nampak wajah Laila yang takut penuh kekhawatiran. Perlahan dia kembali menitikan air mata.
“Ada apa? Apa yang terjadi Laila, tadi aku mendengar suara teriakan dari telepon?” tanyaku dengan serius.
“Kau benar. Kakakku masih hidup. sekarang dia diculik oleh sekelompok orang yang tak aku kenal. Dia menjeleaskan dengan nada sendu.
“Astaga, lalu apa yang mereka ingikan?” tanyaku lagi.
“Mereka memintaku untuk menunjukkan tempat dimana aku dan kakakku melakukan penggalian makam seorang raja yang terlupakan. Begini ceritanya, 3 bulan yang lalu aku dan kakakku melakukan penggalian di sekitar lembah raja-raja Luxor. Kami mencari Raja yang namanya dihapus dari daftar nama raja Mesir kuno. Raja dari Dinasti ke-18 Raja-raja Amarna. Generasi terakhir dari dinasti ke-18 Fir'aun. Namanya Raja Tutankhamen. Sebenarnya hal ini masih kami rahasiakan dari umum. Makam itu tersimpan dalam sebuah ruangan batu. Walau kami telah menemukan tempat dimana makam itu berada. Kami masih belum berani membukanya. Ada kejadian aneh waktu saat penggalian. Satu-persatu pekerja kami meniggal dengan tanpa diketahui penyebabnya. Hingga akhirnya hanya tersisa aku dan kakakku. Kamipun melanjutkan penggalian berdua karena sudah terlampau banyak biaya yang dikeluarkan. Sampai akhirnya kami menemukan pintu makam itu. Didekat pintu masuk makam itu kami menemukan sebuah kalimat yang bertulis ”Kematian akan segera mendatangi mereka yang menyentuh makam Fir’aun”. Ternyata makam itu dikutuk. Kamipun menjadi takut. Aku dan kakakku percaya dengan kutukan itu karena melihat kematian yang menimpa para pekerja kami. Karena itu kami tidak berani membuka pintunya dan merahasiakan hal ini dari siapapun. Kamipun segera pergi dari tempat itu dan melupakannya. Aku tak tau kalau hal ini akan terjadi akibat pencarian makam itu dan sekarang kutukan makam itu menimpa kami berdua.” Laila bercerita panjang lebar dengan berderai air mata.
”Lalu darimana mereka tau tentang makam itu?” tanyaku sambil menenangkannya.
”Entahlah, aku juga tidak tau. Yang pasti kita harus menyelamatkan kakakku.” jawabnya
”Apakah tidak sebaiknya kita melapor polisi?” aku memberi saran.
”Tidak. Itu berbahaya. Nyawa kakakku menjadi taruhannya. Mereka akan membunuh kakakku jika aku melaporkan hal ini kepada polisi. Aku tidak akan melakukannya. Satu-satunya keluargaku yang masih hidup adalah kakakku dan aku tak mau kehilangan dia.” jelasnya sambil menangis.
”Tenang saja, sebagai sahabatnya Prof. Ahmad aku akan membantumu dan kau akan segera bertemu kembali dengan kakakmu. Percayalah.”jawabku menenangkan hatinya. ”Terimakasih”jawabnya senang.
Pagi itu Mesir tak seperti biasanya. Matahari yang tersenyum cerah memancarkan sinarnya nampak terselimuti oleh gumpalan debu kepedihan. Kejadian ini berjalan begitu cepat dan mengejutkan. Aku tak mengira akan terjadi musibah seperti ini. Sungguh diluar dugaan. Kamipun berdiskusi menyiapkan rencana untuk menyelamatkan Prof. Ahmad Husain sambil menunggu hingga waktu yang ditentukan tiba. Saat matahari menuju peraduan panjang dalam senja.

*****

Bulan Agustus. Hari yang sangat panas. Siang itu matahari berada di ujung kesempurnaannya. Cuaca terik membakar siapa saja yang berada di jalan-jalan kota. Sebagian besar orang-orang Mesir banyak yang bepergian ke luar negeri untuk mencari negara-negara yang bersuhu sejuk seperti Inggris, Amerika atau negara-negara Eropa. Sebagian yang lain menghabiskan waktu seharian di rumah. Waktu itu nampak jalanan sangat lengang, banyak orang menggunakan kendaraan beroda empat untuk bepergian. Keadaan ini dimanfaatkan sekali oleh sekelompok orang pencuri makam-makam kuno di Mesir. Mereka bekerja di malam hari dalam kesunyian. Mereka adalah para arkeolog yang berkerjasama dengan kelompok penyeludup barang-barang antik yang memiliki jaringan luas di negara Inggris dan Amerika.
Di sebuah flat tua bekas gudang penimbunan gandum di daerah Hereopolis seseorang terpaku tak bisa bergerak disebuah kursi. Badannya diikat oleh tali yang sangat kuat sehingga tak mungkin untuk lepas. Matanya tertutup sehelai kain hitam yang sangat pekat sehingga tak mungkin bisa melihat. Mulutnya dibekap dengan erat oleh sapu tangan berwarna biru tua sehingga tak mungkin bisa bicara apalagi berteriak. Kini dia hanya diam tak bersuara. Terdengar suara pintu terbuka. Ada seseorang yang masuk ke dalam ruangan itu.
”Buka ikatan mata dan mulutnya” perintah seorang pria.
”Apa kabar sobat? Lama kita tak berjumpa? Kenapa! Apakah kau terkejut?” suara parau seorang pria yang menyebar ke dalam ruangan memecah kesunyian. Nampak sosok tinggi besar berkulit kecoklatan seperti terbakar panas matahari. Dia mengenakan celana panjang coklat dan memakai kemeja biru muda. Rambutnya hitam pekat. Matanya tajam bagai elang yang siap menerkam mangsa. Berjambang dan memiliki tato kumbang di lengan kanan. Dia adalah Prof. Abdul Hakim teman dari Prof. Ahmad Husain.
”Ternyata kau yang melakukan semua ini Hakim, dasar bajingan kau. Brengsek. Cepat lepaskan aku.” teriak Ahmad dengan lantang.
”Buk” tiba-tiba sebuah pukulan mendarat di pipi kanannya. Ahmad tersungkur kesakitan dalam kondisi badan yang terikat di kursi. Lalu tubuhnya diangkat kembali. Darah segar keluar dari bibirnya. Nampak warna biru legam di pipi kanannya.
”Cepat atau lambat bangkai yang kau simpan itu akan tercium juga baunya. Dan sebentar lagi misteri makam kuno itu akan terkuak dan aku akan menjadi terkenal serta kaya raya ha..ha..ha..” Hakim tertawa bahagia melihat apa yang diinginkannya akan terwujud.
”Dari mana kau tau tentang makam itu?” tanya Ahmad.
”Apa kau lupa Ahmad. Bukankah kau sendiri yang memberi tau aku tentang makam itu saat aku antar kau pulang dalam keadaan mabuk berat setelah mengikuti jamuan makan malam bersama di rumah Menteri Kebudayaan Mesir. Sebuah makam yang telah lama hilang dan dicari banyak orang telah ditemukan. Nah sekarang yang terpenting adalah sebentar lagi adikmu Laila akan membawaku ke tempat makam itu berada beserta harta karun yang terkubur bersamanya ha..ha.. ha..” jawabnya lagi sambil tertawa bahagia.
”Kenapa harus adikku? Aku sendiri bisa membawamu kesana tanpa perlu melibatkan adikku dalam masalah ini?” tanya Ahmad sengit.
”Apa kau tidak paham Ahmad. Tujuanku bukan hanya makam itu beserta harta karunnya tetapi juga mendapatkan adikkmu Laila. Selama ini kalian berdua menjadi sainganku dalam perburuan makam raja-raja Mesir. Jika aku mendapatkan adikkmu maka tidak ada lagi pengganggu yang menghambat jalanku menjadi Arkeolog terkenal sepanjang sejarah.” Jawabnya dengan senyum licik penuh bahagia.
”Dasar bajingan. Kau jangan bodoh hakim. Kau tidak tau tempat itu berbahaya. Tempat itu telah dikutuk. Tempat itu akan membawamu dalam kematian.” Jawab Ahmad sengit.
”Ahmad...ahmad...sebagai seorang profesor dibidang arkeologi kau begitu sangat bodoh masih percaya tetang hal-hal tahayul semacam itu. Kutukan itu hanya mitos. Kata itu dipakai hanya untuk menakuti orang-orang bodoh sepertimu agar makam itu tidak ada yang mengganggu. Dan sekarang kebodohanmu telah membawa keberuntungan yang besar bagi diriku. Dan ketika pada saat waktunya tiba, kau tidak akan lagi aku perlukan lagi. Saat itu kau dan adikmu akan menjadi mumi untuk selamanya ha..ha..ha..” Hakim tertawa senang atas keberhasilannya.
”Percayalah Hakim. Makam itu di kutuk. 20 pekerjaku tewas karena penggalian makam itu. Kau jangan menyentuh makam itu. Kau akan menyesal.” Ahmad menjelaskan dengan putus asa.
”Sebaiknya kau banyak berdoa karena sebentar lagi ajal akan menjemputmu.” jawab Hakim penuh emosi. Tiba-tiba seorang pria datang menghampiri Hakim.
”Bos kami semua sudah siap.” kata sang pria yang tak lain adalah anak buah Hakim.
”Bagus. Buat dia pingsan lalu tutup kembali mata dan mulutnya. kita berangkat sekarang. Perburuan akan segera dimulai.” rombongan itu segera meluncur menggunakan tiga buah jip hitam menuju lembah raja-raja Luxor. Tempat dimana makam itu bersembunyi dan tak pernah tersentuh selama lebih dari 3.000 tahun.

*****
Mesir menujukkan kecantikannya di waktu petang. Langit berwarna merah-jingga melukiskan pesona keindahan kala sang mentari telah pulang menuju peraduannya. Negeri yang kaya minyak dan benda purbakalanya ini tak pernah jenuh menghipnotis masyarakat diberbagai belahan dunia. Mulai dari Sungai Nil, Piramida, Mumi, Spinx, dan masih banyak tempat dan barang peninggalan pra-sejarah lainnya. Negara yang menjadi persaingan dan pencurian bagi para pecinta barang antik serta Arkeolog di seluruh dunia.
Suasana terlihat sepi di lembah raja-raja Luxor. ketika itu terjadi pertemuan dua pasang mata yang saling berhadapan dari jarak sekitar 20 meter. Nampak sekelompok pria berdiri membawa peralatan galian dan senapan. Terlihat diantara mereka wajah seseorang yang tak asing bagi Laila. Seseorang yang sangat dia kenal.
”Aku datang menepati janjiku, sekarang dimana kakakku?” tanya Laila pada pria itu.
”Kemarilah, berjalanlah mendekat. Kakakmu berada bersama kami.” perlahan Laila berjalan menghampiri pria itu. tetapi dia tidak menemukan Prof. Ahmad Husain.
”Dimana kakakku?” tanya Laila.
”Lihatlah.” kata pria itu memperlihatkan kakaknya yang pingsan terikat dengan mata dan mulut tertutup.
”Kakak.”Laila berteriak sambil berlari mendekati kakaknya namun dengan cepat ditahan oleh anak buah Hakim.
”Tenang. Dia baik-baik saja. Dia hanya pingsan. Sebentar lagi akan siuman. Sekarang kau tunjukkan kami dimana makam itu berada. Jika tidak maka kakakmu akan mati.” dengan sigap anak buah Hakim menodongkan senjata yang siap untuk menembak.
”Sesuai kesepakatan. Kau akan membebaskannya jika sudah mengetahui dimana makam itu berada” Laila mengingatkan perjanjian mereka.
”Ya. Aku akan menepati janjiku. Tetapi kakakmu akan tinggal disini bersama 2 orang anak buahku. Untuk memastikan kau tidak membohongiku. Karena jika itu terjadi kau sudah tau akibatnya.” kata pria itu dengan tegas.
”Baiklah ikut aku.” kata Laila. Dengan menggunakan obor dan senter Laila berjalan bersama Hakim dan anak buahnya menuju makam itu. Makam itu berada empat meter dibawah makam Ramses VI dimana terdapat pintu masuk pada dinding batu yang menuju lorong yang cukup besar dengan tinggi tiga meter dan lebar dua meter. Pada langkah ke-30, mereka menemukan pintu batu yang tertutup. Kemudian membukanya. Setelah itu mereka menyusuri lorong curam sejauh 20 meter dengan tangga kayu yang sudah terpasang. Akhirnya mereka sampai. Mereka membersihkan puing-puing bekas galian yang menghalangi jalan dan memasang lampu obor di dinding sebagai penerang. Di dekat pintu masuk makam itu bertulis ”Kematian akan segera mendatangi mereka yang menyentuh makam Fir’aun”.
”Cepat kalian buka pintunya. Sebentar lagi kita akan menjadi orang kaya.” perintah Hakim sambil tersenyum bahagia.
Sementara itu diluar makam, langit mulai terlihat gelap. Tanpa mereka ketahui aku datang ke lembah itu bersama Laila dan bersembunyi didekat bebatuan. Aku melihat Ahmad masih terkulai tak berdaya. Dia dijaga oleh dua orang bersenjata. Aku berlari menelusuri bukit kecil dibelakang mereka. Aku mengambil batu besar dekat bukit dan berdiri tepat diatas kepala mereka. Dengan cepat aku melempar batu besar kearah salah seorang penjaga lalu terdengar suara hantaman keras.
”Buk” salah seorang diantara mereka jatuh dengan kepala bersimbah darah. Lalu dengan gerak cepat aku mengeluarkan pistol yang berada dibelakang pinggang dan menembak penjaga yang satu lagi.
”Dor” seketika penculik itu mati dengan bekas luka tembak tepat di bagian jantung. Setelah itu aku menuruni bukit dan berlari mendatangi Ahmad. Dia terlihat pingsan. Aku lalu melepas ikatan mata dan mulutnya lalu mengambil air untuk menyadarkannya.
”Ahmad sadarlah.” aku membangunkannya.
”Ahh...Farid. dimana aku?”Ahmad terbangun dari pingsannya.
”Kau sekarang berada di lembah raja-raja Luxor.” jelasku kepadanya.
”Apa! Dimana adikku Laila?”tanyanya dengan khawatir sambil mencoba untuk berdiri.
”Dia berada di dalam makam itu bersama orang yang menculikmu.” jawabku.
”Celaka. Dia akan membunuh adikku. Ayo kita segera menyusulnya” dengan cepat kami berlari menuju ke tempat makam itu untuk menyelamatkan Laila. Tiba-tiba saat kami berlari dalam lorong menuju makam itu terdengar suara ledakan besar beserta gempa dari dalam lorong galian.
”Duarrr”. Kami semua terkubur dalam bebatuan.

Samarinda, 29 April 2011.

KUMPULAN PUISI ANTUNG FIRMANDANA

HAWA SANG BIDADARI SURGA

Saatku melihatmu
Bagai tetesan embun di pagi hari
Secerah awan kala berwarna putih
Sejernih air yang tak pernah keruh
Sebening salju dalam es yang membeku
Sekilau berlian ditanah surgawi
Seindah mutiara di padang lautan
Kala rembulan bersinar di malam hari
Penyempurna kerudung
Yang menjaga kesucianmu
Pada kulit halus lembut selembut sutera
Seorang hawa Sang Bidadari surga

















RINDUKU

Sekilas Ku tatap kembali
Selembar kisah cerita kenangan
Yang dulu pernah mengisi hati

Dalam angan
Berandai sebuah harapan
Orang-orang yang aku miliki
Orang-orang yang aku cintai
Orang-orang yang aku sayangi
Mereka yang kini pergi
Bersama hembusan angin
Dan tenggelamnya mentari
Tuk kembali
Seperti dulu lagi

Namun semua t’lah berlalu
Saat diri ini sendiri
Tinggallah sepi
Perasaan yang sepi
Dengan selimut malam
Dan cahya rembulan










PENYESALAN

Aku tak tahu
Harusnya memulai darimana
Mengikuti sang waktu
Entah akan kemana
Ketika jalan ini tak lagi beretika

Aku tak mengerti
Tak satupun dapat ku genggam
Apakah angan atau cita-cita
Saat waktu yang t’lah berlalu
Kini tak bisa kunikmati lagi
Pergi tanpa ada pesan
Yang tersisa hanyalah kenangan

Mungkin diri ini ta’kan bisa
Karena yang tersisa
Kini tiada lagi berguna
Semuanya t’lah berakhir
Akan segera berakhir















CINTA

Satu perasaan yang ingin aku nyatakan
Aku sayang sama kamu
Satu kegelisahan yang kini meresahkanku
Saat kau tak ada di sampingku
Satu kenyataan yang tak dapat aku pungkiri
Aku merindukan dirimu
Satu harapan yang ingin aku katakan
Jangan pernah kau pergi tinggalkan Daku





















TERDALAM

Kata-kata itu tersimpan
Rasa itupun terpendam
Ketika pilu yang menyelimutiku
Menambah pedih isi di kalbu
Saat aku yang tak pernah mengerti
Kau yang kini selalu berubah
Walau setiap nuansa memiliki arti
Namun mengapa ini terjadi
Kesepian yang membawa rindu
Dalam perih
Hati ini menjerit
Andai kau tahu apa yang kurasa
Mungkin itu tak akan menjadi duka
























BIDADARIKU

Kutemukan sebuah hidup
Saat seutas angin yang bertiup
Membawaku terbang menembus batas

Di angkasa luas ku menjulang rasa
Senyum hangat alam menyapa hari
Sungguh alangkah indah bumi ini

Aku hadir pada kalbu yang kini berseru
Seorang gadis t’lah mengurungku dalam sunyi
Setangkai bunga nan elok dan jelita
Dalam renung . . . . .
Terukir manis namanya dihatiku
Tergambar jelas dirinya dalam pikirku
Dia yang selalu terbayang dalam mimpi
Dia adalah yang pertama mengisi hati ini
Dia adalah cintaku












MERINDUMU

Terlintas dalam hati ini
Satu bait cerita kenangan
Pada lamun yang menyekap diriku
Saat hati merasa rindu
Ingin ku memberi sesuatu
Yang kiranya menyinari wajahmu
Saat bintang tak lagi terang
Kala rembulan tak dapat bersinar
Dunia ini gelap
Saat itu hanya ada kamu
Dengan membawa seberkas cahaya


















KANGEN

Kau yang kini dalam hatiku
Dilangit remang lembut terbenam
Bisaku hanya menyapa
Melihat sepi tanpa dirimu
Aku tungku tanpa api
Itulah arti dirimu berarti
Di bumi hangus hati ini bertanya
Kini bimbang selimuti kalbu
Berharap kau ada disisi bersamaku
Aku merindukanmu . . .



















PELITA HATI

Tak pernah kusangka
Rasa yang menaruh simpati
Sekejap kesan yang membiaskan arti
Kini menyeretku kelorong gelisah
Sebuah pertemuan . . .
Yang menuntun dan menggugah jiwaku
Pada gerakmu
Pada kata-katamu
Pada rinai tawamu
Rasa-rasa itu membimbingku
Hingga ku mengerti
Hadirmu hancurkan segala ragu
Ragu akan hadirnya harapan
Sebuah mimpi yang sempurna
Mimpi terindah yang selama ini kudamba
Impian yang kunanti sepanjang masa
Miliki cintamu bersamaku selamanya













SAHABAT

Yakinkah aku saat ini
Saat dimana kesendirianku
Tak bisa pergi menjauh darimu

Aku merenung
Teringat akan sebuah janji
Janji hidupmu kepada hidupku
Sebuah janji persahabatan
Persahabatan yang abadi
Antara kau dan aku

Kau dan aku selalu untuk bersama
Karena aku menyayangimu
Seperti kau menyayangi diriku
Sampai kapanpun
Dan apapun yang akan terjadi
Kita adalah sahabat













TAK TERBATAS WAKTU

Andai malam dapat berbicara
Mungkin aku takan kesepian
Ketika penantianku hanya untukmu

Setiap saat . . .
Kesetiaanku tak pernah memudar
Karena cintaku hanya milikmu

Bagai lautan yang kering tiada air
Menantikan hujan turun dari langit
Kerinduanku tak pernah berhenti
Walau berjuta godaan mengganggu

Demi cintaku hanya untukmu
Takkan ada selain dirimu
Aku mencintaimu
Tak terbatas waktu












CINTAKU, KASIHMU

Cintamu ibarat lukisan
Rinduku adalah bingkainya
Antara kita memang belum padan
Pemisah hanyalah cermin
Yang tak bernyawa

Adanya hanyalah hayalan
Datanglah berangan yang pertama
Adap resam kita dalam bercinta

Dimanakah letaknya cintamu
Dimulut ataukah dalam hati

Andai maksud
Belenggukanlah nafasku
Pasti kau tahu
Yang mana kasihmu sejati

Classroom Management

by Antung Firmandana

The Behavior Modification Classroom Management Approach

As discussed earlier, the behavior modification approach is based on principles from behavioral psychology. The major principle underlying this approach is that behavior is learned. This applies both to appropriate and to inappropriate behavior. Advocates of the behavior modification approach contend that a student behaves appropriately for one of two reasons: (1) the student has learned to behave appropriately; or (2) the student has not learned to behave inappropriately. Further, they argue that the student misbehaves for one of two reasons: (1) the student has learned to behave inappropriately; or (2) the student has not learned to behave appropriately. Thus, the role of the teacher is to help students learn to behave appropriately.
Proponents of the behavior modification approach contend that: (1) learning is influenced largely, if not entirely, by events in the environment; and (2) there are four basic strategies-and variations of those strategies-that account for learning. Positive reinforcement, punishment, extinction, and negative reinforcement are the four basic behavior modification managerial strategies. This section discusses a total of twenty behavior modification managerial strategies: (1) utilizing positive reinforcement; (2) utilizing praise and encouragement; (3) utilizing modeling; (4) utilizing shaping; (5) utilizing token economy systems; (6) utilizing contingency contracting; (7) utilizing group contingencies; (8) reinforcing incompatible alternatives;
(9) utilizing behavioral counseling; (10) utilizing self-monitoring; (11) utilizing cues, prompts, and signals; (12) utilizing negative reinforcement; (13) administering punishment; (14) utilizing overcorrection; (15) utilizing response cost; (16) utilizing negative practice; (17) utilizing satiation; (18) utilizing extinction; (19) utilizing fading; and (20) utilizing time out.
Terrence Piper (1974) provides an easily understood explanation of the four basic processes. He suggests that when a student behaves, his or her behavior is followed by a consequence. Furthermore, he argues that there are only four basic categories of consequences: (l) when a reward is introduced; (2) when a punishment is introduced; (3) when a reward is removed; or
(4) when a punishment is removed. The introduction of a reward is called positive reinforcement and the introduction of a punishment is simply called punishment. The removal of a reward is called either extinction or time out, depending upon the situation. The removal of a punishment is called negative reinforcement.
Behaviorists assume that the frequency of a particular behavior is contingent (depends) upon the nature of the consequence that follows the behavior. Positive reinforcement, the introduction of a reward after a behavior, causes the reinforced behavior to increase in frequency; rewarded behavior is thus strengthened and is repeated in the future. Punishment is the introduction of an undesirable or aversive stimulus (punishment) after a behavior and causes the punished behavior to decrease in frequency; punished behavior tends to be discontinued. Extinction is the withholding of an anticipated reward (the withholding of positive reinforcement) in an instance where that behavior was previously rewarded; extinction results in the decreased frequency of the previously rewarded behavior. Time out-a form of extinction-is the removal of the student from the reward or a rewarding situation; it reduces the frequency of reinforcement and causes the behavior to become less frequent. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesirable or aversive stimulus (punishment) after a behavior, and it causes the frequency of the behavior to be increased; the removal of the punishment serves to strengthen the behavior and increase its tendency to be repeated.
In summary, then, the teacher can encourage appropriate student behavior by using: positive reinforcement-the introduction of a reward; and negative reinforcement-the removal
of a punishment. The teacher can discourage inappropriate student behavior by using punishment-the introduction of an undesirable stimulus; extinction-the withholding of an anticipated reward; and time out-the removal of the student from the reward. It must be remembered that these consequences exert influence on student behavior in accordance with established behavioral principles. If the teacher rewards appropriate behavior, it is likely to be continued; if the teacher extinguishes or punishes misbehavior, it is likely to be discontinued. Likewise, if the teacher rewards misbehavior, it is likely to be continued; if the teacher punishes appropriate behavior, it is likely to be discontinued.
According to Buckley and Walker (1970) and other behaviorists, timing and frequency of reinforcement and punishment are among the most important principles in behavior modification. Student behavior that the teacher wishes to encourage should be reinforced immediately after it occurs; student behavior that the teacher wishes to discourage should be punished immediately after it occurs. Behavior that is not reinforced at once tends to be weakened; behavior that is not punished at once tends to be strengthened. Thus, the teacher’s timing of rewards and punishment is important. “The sooner the better” should be the watchword of those teachers who would maximize their management effectiveness.
Of equal importance is the frequency with which a behavior is reinforced. Continuous reinforcement, reinforcement which follows each instance of the behavior, results in learning that behavior more rapidly. Thus, if a teacher wishes to strengthen a particular student behavior, he or she should reward it each time it occurs. While continuous reinforcement is particularly effective in the early stages of acquiring a specific behavior, once the behavior has been established, it is more effective to reinforce intermittently.
There are two approaches to intermittent reinforcement: an interval schedule and a ratio schedule. An interval schedule is one in which the teacher reinforces the student after a specified period of time. For example, a teacher using an interval schedule might reinforce a student every hour. A ratio schedule is one in which the teacher reinforces the student after the behavior has occurred a certain number of times. For example, a teacher using a ratio schedule might reinforce the student after every fourth occurrence of the behavior. For the most part, an interval schedule is best for maintaining a consistent behavior over time, while a ratio schedule is best for producing more frequent occurrence of a behavior.
Positive reinforcement has been defined as the introduction of a reward; extinction and time out have been defined as the removal of a reward. Punishment has been defined as the introduction of a punishment; negative reinforcement has been defined as the removal of a punishment. In other words, behavioral consequences have been discussed as either the introduction or the removal of rewards or the introduction or removal of punishment. Therefore, let’s take a closer look at the notions of reward and punishment.
Utilizing Positive Reinforcement. By definition, postive reinforcement is the introduction of a reward. A reward-a reinforcer-is any stimulus which increases the frequency of the behavior that preceded it. Different authors classify reinforcers differently. The behavior modification literature is replete with labels. There is general agreement, however, that reinforcers may be classified in two major categories: (1) primary reinforcers, which are not learned and which are necessary to sustain life (food, water, and warmth are examples); and (2) conditioned reinforcers, which are learned (praise, affection, and money are examples).
Conditioned reinforcers are of several distinct types, including social reinforcers-rewarding behavior by other individuals within a social context (praise or applause); token
reinforcers-intrinsically nonrewarding objects which may be exchanged at a later time for tangible reinforcers (money or a system of check marks that can be traded in for free time or school supplies, for example); and activity reinforcers-rewarding activities offered the student (outdoor play, free reading time, or being allowed to choose the next song, for example).
Space limitations preclude a complete description of how various types of unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers can be used by the teacher to manage student behavior effectively. Many of the resources listed in the Suggested Readings section do that quite well. However, it is important to emphasize one point here: a reward is defined in terms of its ability to increase the frequency of the rewarded behavior. Thus, rewards (and punishment) can be understood only in terms of an individual student. Rewards-and punishment-are idiosyncratic. One student’s reward may be another student’s punishment. A response that the teacher intended to be rewarding may be punishing while a response intended to be punishing may be rewarding. The latter is very often the case. A very common example occurs when a student misbehaves in order to get attention. The teacher’s subsequent scolding actually rewards rather than punishes the attention-hungry student and, consequently, the student continues to misbehave in order to get the attention he or she seeks.
The above example suggests that the teacher must take great care in selecting a reinforcer that is appropriate to a particular student. While this is true, the selection process need not be difficult. Because reinforcers are idiosyncratic to the individual student, the student is in the best position to designate them. Thus, the best reinforcer is one selected by the student. Givener and Graubard (1974) suggest three methods by which to identify individually oriented reinforcers: (1) obtain clues concerning potential reinforcers by observing what the student likes to do; (2) obtain additional clues by observing what follows specific student behaviors; that is, try to determine what teacher and peer behaviors seem to reinforce his or her behavior; and (3) obtain additional clues by simply asking students what they would like to do with free time, what they would like to have, and what they would like to work for.
To review then, positive reinforcement is the introduction of a reward. Teachers are encouraged to reinforce appropriate student behavior and avoid reinforcing inappropriate student behavior because reinforced behavior tends to be strengthened and continued while unreinforced behavior tends to be weakened and discontinued (Axelrod, 1977; Beatty with others, 1973; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Canter and Canter, 1992; Charles, 1992; Davis, 1974; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dobson, 1970; Dollar, 1972; Faust, 1977; Gnagey, 1981; Harris, 1972; Howell and Howell, 1979; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Long and Frye, 1977; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Banion and Whaley, 1981; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Piper, 1974; Saunders, 1979; Sloane, Buckholdt, Jenson, and Crandall, 1979; Stanford, 1980; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Tanner, 1978; Walker, 1979; Walker and Shea, 1980; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; Weber and Roff, 1983; Weiner, 1972; Welch and Halfacre, 1978; and Wolfgang and G1ickman, 1986). The behavior modification literature contains many studies attesting to the effect of positive reinforcement; clearly, it is a powerful strategy for modifying and maintaining student behavior. Indeed, it is argued here that it is the single most powerful managerial strategy available to the teacher. Additionally, behavior modification offers the teacher a number of managerial strategies that involve the use of reinforcement. Several of the most prominent are discussed in the sections that follow:
(1) utilizing praise and encouragement; (2) utilizing modeling; (3) utilizing shaping; (4) utilizing token economy systems; (5) utilizing contingency contracting; (6) utilizing group contingencies; (7) reinforcing incompatible alternatives; (8) utilizing behavioral counseling; (9) utilizing
self-monitoring; and (10) utilizing cues, prompts, and signals. All involve some aspect of reinforcement.
Utilizing Praise and Encouragement. Both praise and encouragement are viewed as powerful reinforcers-social reinforcers-by behaviorists and as effective managerial tools by others (Axelrod, 1977; Beatty with others, 1983; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Clarizio, 1980; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dollar, 1972; Faust, 1977; Harris, 1972; Howell and Howell, 1979; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Lemlech, 1979; Long and Frye, 1989; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Piper, 1974; Sloane et al., 1979; Stanford, 1980; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker, 1979; Walker and Shea, 1980; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; Weiner, 1972; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). Stanford (1980, page 124) argues that “there are few influences on students’ classroom behavior more powerful than the approval of the teacher.” It is also true that several authors make a distinction between praise and encouragement. These authors contend that praise tends to be evaluative and judgmental while encouragement is viewed as recognition of the student’s efforts and accomplishments. Praise conveys approval; encouragement conveys acceptance. Consequently, they argue that evaluative praise is to be avoided and encouragement, or appreciative praise, is to be used (Dreikurs and Cassel, 1972; Ginott, 1972; Gordon with Burch, 1974; and Grey, 1974). O’Leary and O’Leary (1977) summarize a number of studies that suggest praise and approval are effective strategies. Thus, while research supports the notion that praise and encouragement are valuable reinforcers, it provides little insight into the relative effect of praise and encouragement.
Teachers who feel that it is important to reward appropriate student behavior do so in many ways. These range from “pats on the back” to “happy notes” informing a student’s parents that the student has improved his or her conduct. Most teachers recognize that praise and encouragement are often very powerful social reinforcers.
Utilizing Modeling. Modeling is a process in which the student, by observing another person behaving, acquires new behaviors without himself being exposed to the consequences of the behavior. Modeling, as a managerial strategy, may be viewed as a process in which the teacher demonstrates by his or her own actions the values and behaviors he or she wants students to acquire and display. Many authors see modeling as an important strategy (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Si1berman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Charles, 1981; Clarizio, 1980; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Harris, 1972; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Lemlech, 1979; Long and Frye, 1989; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1988; Sloane and others, 1979; Stanford, 1980; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Tanner, 1978; Walker and Shea, 1980; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). Several of these authors (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Clarizio, 1980; Harris, 1972; Long and Frye, 1989; and O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977) cite research indicating that modeling is an effective strategy for teaching new behaviors.
Utilizing Shaping. Shaping is a procedure in which the teacher requires the student to perform a series of behaviors that approximate the desired behavior and, each time the student performs the required approximation or one a bit closer to the desired behavior, the teacher reinforces the student until the student is consistently able to perform the desired behavior. Thus, shaping is a behavior modification strategy used to encourage the development of new behaviors. Advocates of the behavior modification approach to classroom management strongly support the use of shaping (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Carter, 1972; Charles, 1981; Clarizio, 1980; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Dollar, 1972; Harris, 1972; Howell and Howell, 1979; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Piper, 1974; Sloane and others; 1979; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker, 1979; Walker and Shea, 1980; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). The behavior modification literature contains a number of studies suggesting that shaping is an effective managerial strategy (Buckley and Walker, 1978; Howell and Howell, 1979; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; and Sulzer and Mayer, 1972).
Utilizing Token Economy Systems. A token economy system usually consists of three elements intended to change the behaviors of groups of students: (1) a set of carefully written instructions that describe the student behaviors the teacher will reinforce; (2) a well-developed system for awarding tokens to students who exhibit the behaviors that have been specified as appropriate; and (3) a set of procedures that allows students to exchange tokens they have earned for “prizes” or opportunities to engage in special activities. The implementation and operation of a token economy requires a great investment of time and energy on the part of the teacher. Consequently, its most typical-and efficient-use is in situations in which a large percentage of the students in a class are misbehaving and the teacher seeks to very rapidly change the behavior of those students. A well-managed token economy can be a very effective means for modifying the behavior of groups of students. (Axelrod, 1977; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Carter, 1972; Charles, 1981; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Gnagey, 1981; Harris, 1972; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; Piper, 1974; Sloane and others, 1979; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker and Shea, 1980; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; and Weber, 1982). The literature reveals a large number of studies supporting the contention that properly implemented token economy systems are an effective managerial strategy (Axelrod, 1977; Gnagey, 1981; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; and Sloane and others, 1979).
Utilizing Contingency Contracting. A contingency contract or behavioral contract-an agreement negotiated between the teacher and a misbehaving student-specifies the behaviors the student has agreed to exhibit and indicates what the consequences-the pay off-will be if the student exhibits those behaviors. A contract is a written agreement between the teacher and a student detailing what the student is expected to do and what reward he or she will be given for doing those things. As in all contracts, both parties obligate themselves. The student is committed to behave in certain ways deemed appropriate, and the teacher is committed to reward the student when he or she does so. Contracting tends to be a somewhat time-consuming process. Therefore, it is usually reserved for those instances in which a student is exhibiting serious misbehaviors on a rather routine basis.
Contingency contracts are viewed as an effective managerial strategy by advocates of behavior modification; many of these authors cite studies that have demonstrated the worth of contingency contracting (Axelrod, 1977; Charles, 1992; Clarizio, 1980; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Dollar, 1972; Harris, 1972; Howell and Howell, 1979; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Banion and Whaley, 1981; Sloane and others, 1979; Tanner, 1978; Walker, 1979; Walker and Shea, 1980; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; Welch and Halfacre, 1978; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986).
Utilizing Group Contingencies. The use of group contingencies consists of using a procedure in which the consequences-reinforcement or punishment-that each student receives depend not only on his or her own behavior but also on the behavior of the members of his or her group. Usually, it involves an instance in which the rewards for each individual member of the class are dependent on the behavior of one or more or all of the other students in the class.
Axelrod (1977), Beatty with others (1973), Canter and Canter (1992), Clarizio (1980), Givener and Graubard (1974), Gnagey (1981), Harris (1972), Johnson and Bany (1970), Madsen and Madsen (1981), Sloane and others (1979), Tanner (1978), and Walker (1979) cite the advantages of utilizing group contingencies. Several (Axelrod, 1977; Gnagey, 1981; Harris, 1972; Johnson and Bany, 1970; Sloane and others, 1979; and Walker, 1979) describe research findings suggesting that the use of group contingencies can be an effective managerial strategy in many settings.
Reinforcing Incompatible Alternatives. Reinforcing an incompatible alternative involves a situation in which the teacher rewards a behavior that cannot coexist with the disruptive behavior the teacher wishes to eliminate. Reinforcing incompatible alternatives has significant support in the literature (Axelrod, 1977; Beatty with others, 1973; Buckley and Walker, 1980; Clarizio, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Harris, 1972; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Long and Frye, 1989; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Banion and Whaley, 1981; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Sloane and others, 1979; and Walker and Shea, 1980). Research findings cited by Buckley and Walker (1980), Clarizio (1980), Harris (1972), and Long and Frye (1989) suggest that reinforcing incompatible alternatives is an effective process for modifying inappropriate student behavior.
Utilizing Behavioral Counseling. Behavioral counseling is a process involving a private conference between the teacher and the student-a conference intended to help the misbehaving student see that his or her behavior is inappropriate and plan for change. It is argued that such conferences help the student to understand the relationship between his or her actions and the resulting consequences and to consider alternative actions likely to result in desired consequences. Faust (1977), Jones (1980), Tanner (1978), and Wallen and Wallen (1978) advocate the use of behavioral counseling. Unfortunately, it appears that the effectiveness of this strategy within the classroom setting has not been studied.
Utilizing Self-Monitoring. Self-monitoring-self-management, self-recording-is a strategy in which the student records some aspect of his or her behavior in order to modify that behavior. The assumption is that self-monitoring systematically increases the student’s awareness of
a behavior he or she wishes to decrease or eliminate. Self-monitoring, it is argued, promotes
self-awareness through self-observation. In turn, increased self-awareness increases the likelihood that the student will exhibit a behavior he or she wishes to decrease or eliminate. Support for this strategy is offered by a number of authors (Axelrod, 1977; Clarizio, 1980; Gnagey, 1981; Jones, 1980; Long and Frye, 1989; and O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977). Several (Axelrod, 1977; Clarizio, 1980; Gnagey, 1981; Long and Frye, 1989; and O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977) cite studies that have demonstrated the effectiveness of self-monitoring as a strategy for modifying behavior.
Utilizing Cues, Prompts, and Signals. A cue is a verbal or nonverbal prompt or signal-a reminder-given by the teacher when he or she feels the student needs to be reminded either to behave in a certain way or to refrain from behaving in a certain way. Thus, a cue can be used to encourage or discourage a given behavior. Unlike a reinforcer, a cue precedes a response; it “triggers” a behavior. A review of the literature reveals considerable conceptual and empirical support for the use of cueing in the classroom setting (Blackwood, 1971; Carnine, 1974; Carnine and Fink, 1978; Charles, 1992; Gnagey, 1981; Kounin and Doyle, 1975; Krantz and Scarth, 9; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Long and others, 1980; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Rice, 1974; Sloane and others., 1979; and Weiner, 1972).
Having briefly discussed the use of positive reinforcement and other strategies based on the principles of reinforcement-strategies that are intended to strengthen appropriate student behavior, let us now turn to one other strategy that strengthens behaviors: negative reinforcement.
Utilizing Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus (an unpleasant consequence, a punishment) in an effort to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior. To stop a student’s misbehaving, the teacher arranges to remove or terminate something the student dislikes when-and only when-the student behaves appropriately. Numerous authors describe negative reinforcement as an effective means of increasing the frequency of appropriate student behavior (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Charles, 1981; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Piper, 1974; Sloane et al., 1979; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker and Shea, 1980; and Weiner, 1972). The behavior modification research literature lends support to this position.
Having discussed behavior modification managerial strategies that strengthen student behaviors, let us turn to those that weaken student behaviors. This section examines the use of punishment and other strategies that may be used to decrease and eliminate inappropriate behavior.
Administering Punishment. As noted earlier, punishment is the introduction of an aversive stimulus; an aversive stimulus is any consequence the student finds unpleasant or painful. Aversive stimuli include denial of privileges, reprimands, scolding, disapproval, and threats, for example.
The use of punishment is a subject of great controversy, controversy which is far from resolution. An examination of the literature suggests that punishment is a managerial strategy about which there is widespread disagreement (Beatty with others, 1973; Blackham and Silberman, 1980; Blackwood, 1971; Charles, 1992; Clarizio, 1980; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dobson, 1970; Ginnot, 1972; Gordon, 1974; McDaniel, 1980; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Tanner, 1978; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). By and large, behaviorists see punishment as an effective strategy; most others do not. A review of the research suggests that mild forms of punishment such as mild desists are effective and that harsh forms of punishment such as physical punishment are not. While it appears that every author has a somewhat different opinion, three major viewpoints seem most prominent: (1) the appropriate use of punishment is highly effective in eliminating student misbehavior; (2) the judicious use of punishment in limited types of situations can have desirable immediate, short-term effects on student misbehavior, but the risk of negative side effects requires its use to be carefully monitored; and (3) the use of punishment should be avoided completely, because student misbehavior can be dealt with just as effectively with other techniques that do not have the potential negative side effects of punishment.
Few authors present a viewpoint other than their own. However, Sulzer and Mayer (1982) provide an excellent discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of using punishment. They identify the following advantages: (1) punishment does stop the punished student behavior immediately, and it reduces the occurrence of that behavior for a long period of time;
(2) punishment is informative to students because it helps students to discriminate rapidly between acceptable and unacceptable behaviors; and (3) punishment is instructive to other students because it may reduce the probability that other class members will imitate the punished behaviors.
Disadvantages include: (1) punishment may be misinterpreted; sometimes a specific, punished behavior is generalized to other behaviors; for example, the student who is punished for talking out of turn may stop responding even when appropriate to do so; (2) punishment may cause the punished student to withdraw altogether; (3) punishment may cause the punished student to become aggressive; (4) punishment may produce negative peer reactions; for example, students may exhibit undesirable behaviors (ridicule or sympathy) toward the punished student; and
(5) punishment may cause the punished student to become negative about himself or herself or about the situation and/or the “punisher,” the teacher; for example, punishment may diminish feelings of self-worth or produce a negative attitude toward the teacher.
In weighing the advantages and disadvantages of using punishment, Sulzer and Mayer conclude that alternative procedures for reducing student behaviors should always be considered. Furthermore, they contend that once a punishment procedure is selected, it should be employed with the utmost caution and its effects should be carefully monitored. They also suggest that the teacher anticipate and be prepared to handle any negative consequences that might arise. Finally, they recommend that teachers find desirable behaviors to reinforce at the same time they are punishing undesirable behavior-or withholding reinforcement. Other behaviorists also point to research that suggests that punishment is largely ineffective in the classroom setting and argue against its use.
As noted earlier, advocates of the authoritarian approach view mild forms of punishment (mild desists) as effective, advocates of the intimidation approach view harsher forms of punishment as effective, and advocates of the socioemotional climate approach argue for the effectiveness of another form of punishment-the application of logical consequences. Many behaviorists argue that the effective teacher is one who is able to modify inappropriate student behavior through the use of strategies other than punishment. As noted earlier, they advocate the use of extinction and time out. Several other strategies are also advocated; these include: overcorrection, response cost, negative practice, satiation, fading, extinction, and time out. The section that follows discusses managerial strategies that are useful in discouraging inappropriate student behavior.
Utilizing Overcorrection. Overcorrection is a mild form of punishment in which the teacher requires a disruptive student to restore the environment to a better condition than existed before his or her disruptiveness. The student is required to go beyond simple restitution and to make things better than they were before he or she misbehaved. Blackham and Silberman (1980), Clarizio (1980), and Long and Frye (1989) advocate the use of overcorrection and cite supportive research.
Utilizing Response Cost. Response cost is a procedure in which a specified reward is removed following an inappropriate behavior. The teacher arranges the rules of the classroom so that a particular cost-a fine-is levied for certain misbehaviors. The use of a response cost is the basis of a demerit system. Inappropriate behavior costs the student an already earned reward-or demerits. The use of response cost is advocated by a number of authors (Axelrod, 1977; Canter and Canter, 1976; Clarizio, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dollar, 1972; Gnagey, 1981; Long and Frye, 1977; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Sloane and others, 1979; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; and Walker, 1979). Empirical evidence cited by Gnagey (1981), Madsen and Madsen (1981), O’Leary and O’Leary (1977), and Walker (1979) provide evidence attesting to the effectiveness of response cost as a managerial strategy that discourages inappropriate student conduct. However, it should be noted that there are those that argue that merit systems-incentive systems, reward systems-are far more powerful than demerit
systems-response cost systems (Weber and Roff, 1983).
Utilizing Negative Practice. Negative practice is a process in which the student who exhibits an undesirable behavior is required by the teacher to repeatedly perform that behavior until it becomes punishing-to repeat that behavior to the point at which the behavior itself becomes aversive. Those who advocate the use of negative practice encourage teachers to use this procedure only to eliminate undesirable behaviors that can be repeated without causing additional harm or disruption. (Blackham and Silberman, 1980; and Clarizio, 1980). Research findings cited by Clarizio (1980) seem to suggest that negative practice is an effective managerial strategy.

Utilizing Satiation. Satiation-saturation-is the process of presenting a reinforcing stimulus at such a high rate that it is no longer desirable and becomes aversive. An “oversupply” of a particular reinforcer is presented so that the effectiveness of the reinforcer is diminished. In the typical situation, a teacher might insist that a misbehaving student continue to perform that misbehavior until he or she tires of doing it. (Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker and Shea, 1980; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). A number of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of satiation in reducing undesirable behavior (Blackham and Silberman, 1971; and Buckley and Walker, 1978).
Utilizing Fading. Fading is a process in which the teacher gradually eliminates the cues and prompts for a given kind of behavior. Supporting stimuli-cues and prompts-originally provided are gradually omitted until the student can perform the desired behavior without assistance. Behaviorists view fading as an effective managerial strategy; many offer research findings that support that view (Axelrod, 1977; Blackwood, 1971; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Piper, 1974; and Sulzer and Mayer, 1972).
Utilizing Extinction. The process of purposefully not reinforcing a behavior that has been previously reinforced is called extinction. Behavior that is not reinforced tends to become less and less frequent. Many authors argue that teachers can use extinction to eliminate undesirable student behavior; most offer research findings to support their argument (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Brown, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Charles, 1992; Clarizio, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dobson, 1970; Dreikurs and Cassel, 1972; Gnagey, 1981; Harris, 1972; Howell and Howell, 1979; Krumboltz and Krumboltz, 1972; Long and Frye, 1989; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Piper, 1974; Rice, 1974; Sloane and others, 1979; Tanner, 1978; Walker and Shea, 1980; Weber and Roff, 1983; Weiner, 1972; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986).
Utilizing Time-Out. In the classroom context, time-out usually takes the form of isolating a disruptive student for a short period of time following an inappropriate behavior. The effect is to remove the student from a situation that is reinforcing and, consequently, to weaken the behavior that caused the student to be placed in time-out. Time-out is a behavior modification strategy advocated by a wide range of authors (Axelrod, 1977; Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Blackwood, 1971; Buckley and Walker, 1978; Charles, 1992; Clarizio, 1980; Deitz and Hummel, 1978; Dollar, 1972; Gnagey, 1981; Harris, 1972; Long and Frye, 1977; Madsen and Madsen, 1981; Nielsen, 1974; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Sloane and others, 1979; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; Walker, 1979; Walker and Shea, 1980; Weber, 1982; Weiner, 1972; Welch and Halfacre, 1978; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). A substantial body of research (Axelrod, 1977; Clarizio, 1980; Long and Frye, 1989; O’Leary and O’Leary, 1977; Sulzer and Mayer, 1972; and Walker, 1979) suggests that time-out is effective in dealing with disruptive student behavior in a variety of settings.
Clearly, this section on the behavior modification approach can only begin to describe the many managerial strategies that constitute this approach. Should you feel the need for more information on this approach, there are a number of books that provide descriptions of behavior modification and behavior modification strategies. Books by Axelrod (1983) and Clarizio (1980) provide particularly good descriptions of behavior modification strategies.










The Socioemotional Climate Classroom Management Approach
The socioemotional climate approach to classroom management has its roots in counseling and clinical psychology and, consequently, places great importance on interpersonal relationships.
It builds on the assumption that learning takes place best in a positive socioemotional climate, that socioemotional climate is a function of teacher-student interpersonal relationships, and that the teacher-not the student-is the major determiner of the nature of that relationship-and of the classroom climate. Consequently, the central managerial task of the teacher is to build positive interpersonal relationships and, consequently, to promote a positive socioemotional climate.
Ten socioemotional climate strategies are discussed here: (1) fostering positive interpersonal relationships; (2) communicating genuineness; (3) communicating empathic understanding;
(4) communicating acceptance: (5) utilizing effective communication; (6) exhibiting active listening; (7) utilizing humor; (8) utilizing reality therapy; (9) developing a democratic classroom; and (10) employing logical consequences.
Fostering Positive Interpersonal Relationships. Advocates of the socioemotional climate approach to classroom management stress the importance of fostering positive teacher-student interpersonal relationships; they argue that effective classroom management is largely determined by the nature of these relationships (Aspy and Roebuck, 1977; Glasser, 1969; Gnagey, 1981; Jones, 1980; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; and Weber and Roff, 1983). All agree with Rogers (1969) who claims that the facilitation of significant learning is highly dependent upon the nature of the relationship between the teacher and the student-the facilitator and the learner. Aspy and Roebuck (1977) and Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) cite research that lends support to this position. Consequently, advocates of the socioemotional climate approach suggest that fostering positive interpersonal relationships is a critically important managerial strategy.
Many of the ideas that characterize the socioemotional climate approach-an approach that emphasizes the importance of teacher-student interpersonal relationships-may be traced to the work of Carl Rogers (1969). As noted above, his major premise is that the facilitation of significant learning is largely a function of certain attitudinal qualities that exist in the interpersonal relationship between the teacher (the facilitator) and the student (the learner). Rogers has identified several factors that he believes are essential if the teacher is to have maximum effect in facilitating learning: (1) realness, genuineness, and congruence; (2) empathic understanding; and (3) acceptance, prizing, caring, and trust.
Communicating Realness, Genuineness, and Congruence. Realness-genuineness or congruence-is viewed as the degree to which the teacher’s words and actions accurately reflect his or her real feelings and attitudes. Rogers (1969) argues that communicating realness is absolutely essential to the development of positive teacher-student interpersonal relationships. Realness is an expression of the teacher being himself or herself. That is, the teacher is aware of his or her feelings, accepts and acts on them, and is able to communicate them when appropriate. The teacher’s behavior is congruent with his or her feelings. In other words, the teacher is genuine. Sincere expressions of enthusiasm or frustration are typical examples of realness. Rogers suggests that realness allows the teacher to be perceived by students as a real person, a person with whom they can relate. Thus, the establishment of positive interpersonal relationships and of a positive socioemotional climate is enhanced by the teacher’s ability to display realness. A number of authors subscribe to Roger’s views despite the absence of empirical support (Aspy and Roebuck, 1977; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Ginott, 1972; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Jones, 1980; Long and Frye, 1977; and Weber and Roff, 1983).
Communicating Empathic Understanding. Empathic understanding is an expression of the teacher’s ability to understand the student from the student’s point of view. It is a sensitive awareness of the student’s feelings that is nonevaluative and nonjudgmental. Expressions of empathy are all too rare in the classroom. When they occur the student feels that the teacher understands what he or she is thinking and feeling. Rogers-and others-argue that clearly communicated, sensitively accurate, empathic understanding greatly increases the probability that positive interpersonal relationships, a positive socioemotional climate, and significant learning will occur. Aspy and Roebuck (1977), Ginott (1972), Long and Frye (1989), and Weber and Roff (1983) agree with this contention. Unfortunately, it appears that the effects of communicating empathic understanding have not been studied.
Communicating Acceptance. Acceptance-unconditional positive regard-is the third attitude that Rogers views as important to teachers who would be successful in facilitating learning. Acceptance indicates that the teacher views the student as a person of worth. It is nonpossessive caring for the learner. It is an expression of basic trust-a belief that the student is trustworthy. Accepting behaviors are those which make the student feel trusted and respected, those which enhance his or her self-worth. They are teacher behaviors that let the student know that the teacher is “separating the sin from the sinner.” Through acceptance, the teacher displays confidence and trust in the ability and potential of the student. Consequently, the teacher who cares, prizes, and trusts the student has a far greater chance of creating a socioemotional climate which promotes learning than does the teacher who fails to do so. Acceptance is viewed as crucially important by numerous authors (Ginott, 1972; Glasser, 1969; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Howell and Howell, 1979; Jones, 1980; Lemlech, 1979; Long and Frye, 1989; Weber and Roff, 1983; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980); all build on the work of Rogers (1969). Although acceptance is a widely advocated strategy, an examination of the literature yields little empirical support for its desirability or effectiveness.
In summary, then, Rogers suggests that there are certain factors that facilitate learning and most prominent among these is the attitudinal quality of the interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the student. He has identified three factors that are crucial to the rapport-building process: realness, empathy, and acceptance. Ginott (1972) and (Glasser, 1969) have built on the work of Rogers. Ginott has presented views which are similar to those of Rogers. His writings also stress the importance of congruence, empathy, and acceptance and give numerous examples of how these attitudes may be manifested by the teacher. Ginott has emphasized the importance of effective communication in promoting positive teacher-student relationships. How the teacher communicates is viewed as being of decisive importance.
Utilizing Effective Communication. Ginott has written that the cardinal principle of effective communication is that the teacher talk to the situation, not to the personality and character of the student. Effective communication is viewed as particularly important in situations in which the teacher confronts a student by calling his or her attention to a behavior considered to be undesirable or inappropriate. When confronted with undesirable student behavior, the teacher is advised to: describe what he or she sees; describe what he or she feels; and describe what needs to be done. The teacher accepts the student but not the student’s behavior; the teacher “separates the sin from the sinner.” This notion has been called unconditional positive regard. (As you can see, it is identical to Rogers’s notion of acceptance.) The teacher is to view the student as a person of worth regardless of how the student behaves. By and large, most others who have examined this issue agree (Canter and Canter, 1976; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Jones, 1980; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Stanford, 1980; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). Studies cited by Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) seem to lend support to this view.
Ginott (1972) has provided a long list of recommendations describing ways in which the teacher might communicate effectively. Although a lengthy explanation of each is not possible here, a summary of these recommendations follows:
1. Address the student’s situation. Do not judge his or her character and personality, because this can be demeaning.
2. Describe the situation, express feelings about the situation, and clarify expectations concerning the situation.
3. Express authentic and genuine feelings that promote student understanding.
4. Diminish hostility by inviting cooperation and providing students with opportunities to experience independence.
5. Decrease defiance by avoiding commands and demands which provoke defensive responses.
6. Recognize, accept, and respect the student’s ideas and feelings in ways which increase his or her feelings of self-worth.
7. Avoid diagnosis and prognosis, which result in labeling the student, because this may be disabling.
8. Describe processes and do not judge products or persons; provide guidance, not criticism.
9. Avoid questions and comments that are likely to incite resentment and invite resistance.
10. Avoid the use of sarcasm, because this may diminish the student’s self-esteem.
11. Resist the temptation to provide the student with hastily offered solutions; take the time to give the student the guidance needed to solve his or her own problem; encourage autonomy.
12. Attempt to be brief; avoid preaching and nagging, which is not motivating.
13. Monitor and be aware of the impact one’s words are having on students.
14. Use appreciative praise, because it is productive; avoid judgmental praise, because it is destructive.
15. Listen to students and encourage them to express their ideas and feelings.
Because the list above cannot do justice to Ginott’s views, the reader who desires a fuller explanation of these recommendations and who wishes to examine examples which support Ginott’s suggestions is encouraged to refer to his last book, Teacher and Child (Ginott, 1972).
Many of those who share Ginott’s views regarding effective communication stress the importance of two additional managerial strategies: active listening and humor.
Exhibiting Active Listening. Active listening is a process in which the teacher listens carefully to the student and then feeds back the message in an attempt to show that he or she understands what the student was attempting to say. Advocates of this strategy argue that active listening creates a situation in which the student is more likely to feel understood and valued; some view it as a way to operationalize the concept of acceptance. Active listening is a strategy many authors have viewed as important to facilitating positive teacher-student relationships (Aspy and Roebuck, 1977; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Jones, 1980; Long and Frye, 1989; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Stanford, 1980; Tanner, 1978; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; Weber and Roff, 1983; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). Nevertheless, a review of the literature fails to reveal studies that have examined the validity of this view.
Utilizing Humor. Humor is a strategy that can be used to ease tension in an anxiety-producing situation or to make a student aware of a lapse in behavior. Humor, it is argued, should
be genial, kindly, and gentle and should not be sarcastic or ridiculing, as this endangers
teacher-student relationships and student feelings of self-worth. (Blackwood, 1971; Charles, 1992; Gnagey, 1981; Kohut and Range, 1979; and Long and others, 1980). It appears that this is an area which has not been investigated.
As noted earlier, a third viewpoint that might be classified as a socioemotional approach to classroom management is that of Glasser (1969). Although he too is an advocate of teacher realness, empathy, and acceptance, Glasser does not give these primary emphasis. Rather, he stresses the importance of teacher involvement and the use of a managerial strategy called reality therapy.
Utilizing Reality Therapy. Glasser asserts that the single basic need that people have is the need for identity-feelings of distinctiveness and worthiness. He argues that in order to achieve a “success” identity within the school context, one must develop social responsibility and feelings of self-worth. Social responsibility and self-worth are the result of the student developing a positive relationship with others-both peers and adults. Thus, Glasser argues, it is involvement that is crucial to the development of a success identity. He claims that student misbehavior is
the result of the student’s failure to develop a success identity. He proposes an eight-step,
one-to-one counseling process the teacher might use to help the student change his or her behavior; this process has been called reality therapy and is in many ways similar to behavior contracting, a behavior modification strategy discussed in the previous learning activity. Glasser suggests that the teacher should:
1. Become personally involved with the student; accept the student but not the student’s misbehavior; indicate a willingness to help the student in the solution of his or her behavior problem.
2. Elicit a description of the student’s present behavior; deal with the problem, do not evaluate or judge the student.
3. Assist the student in making a value judgment about the problem behavior; focus on what the student is doing which is contributing to the problem and to his or her failure.
4. Help the student plan a better course of action; if necessary, suggest alternatives; help the student reach his or her own decision based on his or her evaluation, thereby fostering
self-responsibility.
5. Guide the student in making a commitment to the course of action he or she has selected.
6. Reinforce the student as he or she follows the plan and keeps the commitment; be sure to let the student know that you are aware that progress is being made.
7. Accept no excuses if the student fails to follow through with his or her commitment; help the student understand that he or she is responsible for his or her own behavior; alert the student of the need for a better plan; acceptance of an excuse communicates a lack of caring.
8. Allow the student to suffer the natural and realistic consequences of misbehavior, but do not punish the student; help the student try again to develop a better plan and expect him or her to make a commitment to it.
Glasser views the above process-reality therapy-as effective for the teacher who wishes to help the misbehaving student develop more productive behavior. (In addition, Glasser proposes a similar process-the social problem-solving classroom meeting-for helping a whole class deal with group behavior problems. As a managerial strategy, the classroom meeting is best thought of as a group process managerial strategy-reality therapy for the classroom group. Therefore, it is described in the next section.)

A fourth and final viewpoint which might be seen as a socioemotional climate approach is that of Dreikurs and Grey (1990) and Dreikurs, Gruenwald, and Pepper (1982). While it is true that works by Dreikurs and his colleagues contain many ideas that have important implications for effective classroom management, there are two which stand out from the others: (1) an emphasis on the democratic classroom-a classroom in which the students and the teacher share responsibility for both process and progress; and (2) a recognition of the impact that natural and logical consequences have on the behavior-and misbehavior-of students.
Developing a Democratic Classroom. A dominant theme in Dreikurs approach is the assumption that student conduct and achievement are facilitated in a democratic classroom. The autocratic classroom, he argues, is one in which the teacher uses force, pressure, competition, punishment, and the threat of punishment to control student behavior. The laissez-faire classroom is one in which the teacher provides little, if any, leadership and is overly permissive. Both the autocratic classroom and the laissez-faire classroom lead to student frustration, hostility, and/or withdrawal; both result in a devastating lack of productivity. True productivity can occur only in a democratic classroom-one in which the teacher shares responsibility with students. It is in a democratic atmosphere that students expect to be treated and are treated as responsible, worthwhile individuals capable of intelligent decision making and problem solving. And it is the democratic classroom that fosters mutual trust between the teacher and the students and among students.
The teacher who attempts to establish a democratic classroom atmosphere must not abdicate his or her responsibilities as a leader. The effective teacher is not an autocrat, but neither is he or she an anarchist. The democratic teacher guides; the autocratic teacher dominates; and the
laissez-faire teacher abdicates. The democratic teacher teaches responsibility by sharing responsibility.
The key to a democratic classroom organization is regular and frank group discussions. Here the teacher-acting the role of leader-guides the group in group discussions that focus on problems of concern. Three products of that process have been identified: (1) the teacher and the students have an opportunity to express themselves in a way that is sure to be heard; (2) the teacher and the students have an opportunity to get to know and understand one another better, and (3) the teacher and the students are provided with an opportunity to help one another. Dreikurs notes that an essential by-product of such group discussions is the opportunity the teacher has to influence those values of his or her students that may differ from those considered more productive.
Although there is an emphasis on the importance of the teacher’s developing a democratic socioemotional classroom climate, you will see in the next section-the section dealing with the group process aproach-that these views on the value of shared leadership and group discussions are very similar to those of the advocates of the group process approach.

Employing Logical Consequences. The second major emphasis found in the writings of Dreikurs concerns the impact of consequences on student behavior. Dreikurs makes an important distinction between three types of negative consequences: natural negative consequences, logical consequences, and punishment. In the classroom setting, natural consequences are viewed as those negative consequences that are solely the result of the student’s own behavior; they occur according to the “laws of nature.” A logical consequence is a negative consequence that is arranged by the teacher, but which is a logical outcome of the student’s behavior. Punishment is a negative consequence that is arranged by the teacher, but which is not a logical outcome of the student’s behavior. The natural consequence of the student’s grasping a hot test tube is that he or she burns his or her hand. The logical consequence of dropping and breaking that test tube is that the student is required to pay the cost of replacing the broken test tube. Requiring the student to “serve time” in detention because of his or her “carelessness,” would be considered punishment. In order to be considered a logical consequence, however, the student must view the consequence as logical. If it is viewed by the student as punishment, the positive effect is lost. Although most behaviorists do not make a distinction between logical consequences and punishments, most advocates of the socioemotional climate approach do. Dreikurs and Grey (1990) suggest five criteria they view as useful in distinguishing logical consequences from punishment:
1. Logical consequences express the reality of the social order, not of the person; punishment expresses the power of a personal authority; a logical consequence results from a violation of an accepted social rule.
2. Logical consequences are logically related to the misbehavior; punishment rarely is logically related; the student sees the relationship between the misbehavior and its consequences.
3. Logical consequences involve no element of moral judgment; punishment inevitably does; the student’s misbehavior is viewed as a mistake, not a sin.
4. Logical consequences are concerned only with what will happen next; punishment is in the past; the focus is on the future.
5. Logical consequences are involved in a friendly manner; punishment involves either open or concealed anger; the teacher should try to disengage himself or herself from the consequence.
In summary, then, logical consequences: express the reality of the social order; are intrinsically related to the misbehavior, involve no element of moral judgment; and are concerned only with what will happen next. On the other hand, punishment: expresses the power of personal authority; is not logically related to the misbehavior; involves moral judgment; and deals with the past. Dreikurs stresses the importance of the positive effect which the application of logical consequences has on the behavior of students. Both argue it is crucial that teachers help students understand the logical relationship between their behavior and the consequences of that behavior. This view is supported by a number of authors (Charles, 1992; Curwin and Mendler, 1990; Ginott, 1972; Grey, 1974; Weber and Roff, 1983; Weiner, 1980; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986); all argue that it is important that the teacher be able to use logical consequences appropriately-and avoid punishment-in helping students change their behaviors to those that are more desirable.
Unfortunately, there are misbehaviors for which there is no obvious logical consequence; fighting is a good example of such a misbehavior. In those cases, it is suggested here that the teacher use reasonable consequences. A negative consequence is reasonable if: (1) it is made known to the student in advance; and (2) it truly is reasonable; that is, a good case can be made for its reasonableness. In the case of fighting, a supervised work detail-a form of community service-would be a reasonable consequence.
Here, it is argued that the use of logical consequences-and of reasonable consequences-have two major advantages over the use of punishment. First, logical and reasonable consequences are far less likely to endanger the interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the student. The role of the teacher is that of “scorekeeper,” not “punisher.” Second, because the consequence is related to the offense the student is much more likely to see a relationship between his or her behavior and the consequence of that behavior. The student is much more likely to come to understand that the consequence is something he or she brought upon himself or herself by his or her actions.
The teacher who would be an effective classroom manager would do well to consider including the following socioemotional climate strategies in his or her behavioral repertoire: (1) fostering positive interpersonal relationships; (2) communicating genuineness; (3) communicating empathic understanding; (4) communicating acceptance: (5) utilizing effective communication;
(6) exhibiting active listening; (7) utilizing humor; (8) utilizing reality therapy; (9) developing a democratic classroom; and (10) employing logical consequences. All are strategies that facilitate the establishment and maintenance of positive teacher-student interpersonal relationships and a positive socioemotional climate.




The Group Process Classroom Management Approach
As noted earlier, the group process approach-also known as the sociopsychological approach-is based on principles from social psychology and group dynamics. The major
premise underlying the group process approach is based on the following assumptions:
(1) instruction takes place within a group context-the classroom group; (2) the classroom group is a social system with the characteristics of other social systems; and (3) the teacher has the capacity to establish and maintain a productive social system-a productive classroom group. Thus, the major role of the teacher is to establish and maintain a productive classroom group. While there is some disagreement concerning the conditions which characterize the effective, productive classroom group and the managerial strategies that foster those conditions, this section examines group managerial strategies that are based on four excellent sources: the work of Kounin (1970), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Johnson and Bany (1970), and Glasser (1969).
Fifteen group managerial strategies are examined in this section: (1) exhibiting withitness behaviors; (2) exhibiting overlapping behaviors; (3) maintaining group focus; (4) fostering reasonable, clearly understood expectations; (5) sharing leadership; (6) fostering open communication; (7) fostering attraction; (8) establishing and maintaining group morale;
(9) developing cooperation; (10) fostering group cohesiveness; (11) promoting productive group norms; (12) employing classroom meetings; (13) involving students in decision making;
(14) resolving conflicts through discussion and negotiation; and (15) employing role playing.
Exhibiting Withitness Behaviors. The ability to be observant of and attentive to what is going on in the classroom has been termed “withitness” (Kounin, 1970). Withitness behaviors are those behaviors by which the teacher communicates to students that he or she knows what is going on, that he or she is very much aware of what students are doing-or not doing. Clearly, students are less likely to misbehave if the teacher is perceived to be “withit.” Thus, teachers are encouraged to exhibit withitness behaviors by a number of authors (Charles, 1992; Faust, 1977; Ginott, 1972; Gnagey, 1981; Kounin, 1970; Lemlech, 1979; Long and Frye, 1989; Tanner, 1978; and Weber and Roff, 1983). Kounin found that a teacher's ability to exhibit withitness behaviors is related to student on-task behavior; that is, “withit” teachers seem to have fewer discipline problems. Subsequent studies have supported this finding.
Exhibiting Overlapping Behaviors. A teacher would be said to be exhibiting overlapping behavior if he or she was attending to more than one issue at the same time. The ability to handle two situations simultaneously without becoming so immersed in one that the other is neglected is viewed as an important managerial skill (Charles, 1981; Faust, 1977; Ginott, 1972; Kounin, 1970; Lemlech, 1979; Long and Frye, 1977; and Tanner, 1978). Studies reported by Kounin (1970) give considerable support to the notion that overlapping behaviors are an effective managerial tool. Kounin suggests that overlapping-when combined with withitness-is related to managerial success. The teacher who is able to pay attention to more than one issue at a time is more likely to be effective than the teacher who is unable to do so.
Maintaining Group Focus. The process of maintaining group focus is one in which the teacher keeps all members of the classroom group actively involved, alert, and accountable for their performance. Group-focus behaviors are those behaviors teachers use to maintain a focus on the group-rather than on an individual student. Kounin (1970) reported studies suggesting that effective teachers exhibit behaviors that maintain group focus. Kounin identified two aspects of group-focus behaviors: group alerting, which refers to the extent to which the teacher involves nonreciting students (maintains their attention and “keeps them on their toes”); and accountability, which refers to the extent to which the teacher holds students accountable and responsible for their task performances during recitations. Kounin found that group alerting and accountability are related to student on-task behavior. He suggests that teachers who maintain a group focus are more successful in promoting student goal-directed behavior and in preventing student misbehavior than are teachers who do not. Charles (1992), Ginnott (1972), Gnagey (1981), Long and Frye (1989), Tanner (1978), and Weber and Roff (1983) cite Kounin's work as a basis for their views in this regard.
In summarizing his studies, Kounin asserts that his findings suggest there are certain teaching behaviors-withitness, overlapping, and group-focus behaviors-that are related to managerial success. He also notes that these techniques of classroom management apply to the classroom group and not merely to individual students. Thus, Kounin may be described as a staunch advocate of group management-a most interesting dimension of' the group process approach to classroom management.
Having examined several strategies viewed as important by Kounin-and others who support his arguments, let us focus on the eight group process strategies identified by Schmuck and
Schmuck (1979): (1) fostering reasonable, clearly understood expectations; (2) sharing leadership; (3) fostering open communication; (4) fostering attraction; (5) establishing and maintaining group morale; (6) developing cooperation; (7) fostering group cohesiveness; and
(8) promoting productive group norms.
Fostering Reasonable, Clearly Understood Expectations. Expectations are those perceptions that the teacher and the students hold regarding their relationships to one another. They are individual predictions of how self and others will behave. Therefore, expectations about how members of the group will behave greatly influence how the teacher and the students behave in relation to one another. The behavior of the teacher communicates to students what behavior the teacher expects of them, and the students, in turn, tend to conform to those expectations. Thus, if students feel the teacher expects them to misbehave, it is likely that they will misbehave; if students feel the teacher expects them to behave appropriately, it is more likely that they will behave appropriately. It is argued that the effective classroom group is one in which expectations are accurate, realistic, and clearly understood. Ginott (1972), Jones (1980), Karlin and Berger (1972), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Tanner (1978), Walker (1979), and Weber and Roff (1983) argue that an effective classroom manager fosters reasonable, clearly understood expectations. Research cited by Jones (1980) and Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) supports this view.
Sharing Leadership. Leadership is best thought of as those behaviors that help the group move toward the accomplishment of its objectives. Thus, leadership behaviors consist of actions by group members; included are actions which aid in setting group norms, which move the group toward its goals, which improve the quality of interaction between group members, and which build group cohesiveness. By virtue of their role, teachers have the greatest potential for leadership. However, in an effective classroom group, leadership functions are performed by both the students and the teacher. An effective classroom group is one in which the leadership functions are well distributed and where all group members can feel power and self-worth in accomplishing academic tasks and in working together. When students share classroom leadership with the teacher, they are far more likely to be self-regulating and responsible for their own behavior. Thus, the effective teacher is one who creates a climate in which students perform leadership functions. The teacher improves the quality of group interaction and productivity by training students to perform goal-directed leadership functions and by dispersing leadership throughout the group.
Several authors argue that teachers should share leadership functions with their students. That is, they suggest that teachers should share leadership functions so that students are encouraged to assist in carrying out those functions that help a group achieve its goals and objectives (Beatty with others, 1973; Dreikurs and Cassel, 1972; Dreikurs and Grey, 1968; Johnson and Bany, 1970; Karlin and Berger, 1972; Lemlech, 1979; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Stanford, 1980; and Tanner, 1978). Stanford (1980) argues that shared leadership is an essential part of establishing group responsibility norms. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) and others report research suggesting that shared leadership enhances group productivity.
Fostering Open Communication. Communication-both verbal and nonverbal-is dialogue between group members. It involves the uniquely human capability to understand one another's ideas and feelings. Thus, communication is the vehicle through which the meaningful interaction of members takes place and through which group processes in the classroom occur. Effective communication means the receiver correctly interprets the message that the sender intends to communicate. Therefore, a twofold task of the teacher is to open the channels of communication so that all students express their thoughts and feelings freely and, frequently, to accept student thoughts and feelings. In addition, the teacher should help students develop certain communication skills-paraphrasing, perception checking, and feedback. This view is advocated by Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) and Stanford (1980).
Fostering Attraction. Attraction refers to the friendship patterns in the classroom group. Attraction can be described as the level of friendship that exists among members of the classroom group. The level of attraction is dependent upon the degree to which positive interpersonal relationships have been developed. It seems clear that a positive relationship exists between level of attraction and student academic performance. Thus, it is argued, the effective classroom manager is one who fosters positive interpersonal relationships among group members. For example, the teacher attempts to promote the acceptance of rejected students and new members. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) and Stanford (1980) are most prominent among those who support this view.
Establishing and Maintaining Group Morale. Group morale may be viewed as the extent to which group members experience satisfaction from the total school situation and the extent to which members are cooperative and enthusiastic. Advocates of the group process approach to classroom management encourage teachers to establish and maintain group morale because it is positively related to group productivity (Johnson and Bany, 1970; Stanford, 1980; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; and Weber and Roff, 1983). They argue that groups that exhibit a high level of group morale are far more likely to be productive than groups that exhibit a low level of group morale. This argument is supported by research that has examined relationships between group morale, group cohesiveness, and group productivity (Johnson and Bany, 1970; and Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979).
Developing Cooperation. A number of authors suggest that teachers should encourage cooperation rather than competition in order to facilitate a classroom atmosphere that fosters learning. “Competition undermines cooperation” (Johnson and Bany, 1970, page 169). Dreikurs and Cassel (1972), Howard (1978), Johnson and Bany (1970), Lemlech (1979), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Stanford (1980), and Wallen and Wallen (1978) are among those who stress that teachers should develop cooperation. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) and Stanford (1980) cite studies that support this contention. As noted later in this section, “achieving classroom group unity and cooperation” are given particular importance by Johnson and Bany (1970).
Fostering Group Cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is concerned with the collective feeling that the class members have about the classroom group-the sum of the individual members' feelings about the group. Unlike the notion of attraction, cohesiveness emphasizes the individual's relation to the group as a whole instead of to individuals within the group. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) note that groups are cohesive for a variety of reasons: (1) because the members like one another; (2) because there is high interest in a task; and (3) because the group offers prestige to its members. Thus, a classroom group is cohesive when most of its members, including the teacher, are highly attracted to the group as a whole.
Cohesiveness occurs to the extent to which individual needs are satisfied by group membership. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) assert that cohesiveness is a result of the dynamics of interpersonal expectations, leadership style, attraction patterns, and the flow of communication. The teacher can create cohesive classroom groups by open discussions of expectations, by dispersion of leadership, by the development of several friendship clusters, and by the frequent use of two-way communication. Cohesiveness is essential to group productivity. Cohesive groups possess clearly established group norms-strong norms, not necessarily norms that are productive. Thus, the effective classroom manager is one who creates a cohesive group that possesses goal-directed norms. A cohesive group is also more likely to develop productive group norms and to be productive. Dreikurs and Cassel (1972), Gaw and Sayer (1979), Johnson and Bany (1970), Lemlech (1979), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Wallen and Wallen (1978), and Weber (1994) are among those who encourage the fostering of group cohesiveness. Research findings (Johnson and Bany, 1970; and Wallen and Wallen, 1978) lend considerable support to this view.
Promoting Productive Group Norms. Group norms are shared expectations of how members of a group should act in the group-shared expectations of how group members should think, feel, and behave. Classroom group norms are standards for classroom behavior that emerge from group interactions; they greatly influence interpersonal relationships because they provide guidelines that help members understand what is expected of them and what they should expect from others. Productive group norms are essential to group effectiveness. Such norms provide a frame of reference that guides the behavior of members. The group, not the teacher, regulates behavior by exerting pressure on members to adhere to the group's norms. It is crucial that the teacher assist the group in the development of productive norms. This is a difficult task but one that teachers are encouraged to undertake (Gaw and Sayer, 1979; Johnson and Bany, 1970; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Stanford, 1980; Wallen and Wallen, 1978; and Weber and Roff, 1983).
Advocates of the group process approach argue that the major task of the teacher is to help the group establish, accept, and maintain productive group norms. They also argue that productive norms can be developed-and unproductive norms changed-through the concerted, collaborative efforts of the teacher using a variety of strategies. Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) and Johnson and Bany (1970) provide excellent descriptions of strategies the teacher should utilize in establishing and maintaining productive group norms.

Schmuck and Schmuck (1979) give major importance to the teacher's ability to create and manage an effectively functioning, goal-directed, productive classroom group. The implications of their position are, as they suggest, the following:
1. The teacher should work with students to clarify the interpersonal expectations held by individuals in the group; recognize the expectations he or she holds for each individual student and for the group; modify his or her expectations on the basis of new information; foster expectations that emphasize student strengths rather than weaknesses; and make a deliberate effort to accept and support each student.
2. The teacher should exert goal-directed influences by exhibiting appropriate leadership behaviors; help students develop leadership skills; and disperse leadership by sharing leadership functions with students and by encouraging and supporting the leadership activities of students.
3. The teacher should display empathy toward students and help them develop an empathic understanding of one another; accept all students and encourage them to accept one another; provide opportunities for students to work collaboratively; and facilitate the development of student friendships and teacher-student rapport.
4. The teacher should help students resolve conflicts between institutional rules, group norms, and/or individual attitudes; use various problem-solving techniques and group discussion methods to help students develop productive, goal-directed norms; and encourage students to be responsible for their own behavior.
5. The teacher should exhibit effective communication skills and help students develop effective communication skills; foster open channels of communication which encourage students to express their ideas and feelings freely and constructively; promote student interaction, which allows students to work with and get to know one another; and provide opportunities for students to discuss openly the group's processes.
6. The teacher should foster attraction, cooperation, and cohesiveness by establishing and maintaining a classroom group that is characterized by: clearly understood expectations; shared, goal-directed leadership; high levels of empathy, acceptance, and friendship; high morale; and open channels of communication.
Although the views held by Johnson and Bany (1970) are, in many ways, similar to those of Schmuck and Schmuck, they represent a contribution that warrants an examination here. Johnson and Bany describe two major types of classroom management activities-facilitation and maintenance. Facilitation refers to those management behaviors that improve conditions within the classroom; maintenance refers to those management behaviors that restore or maintain effective conditions. The teacher who manages the classroom effectively exhibits both facilitation and maintenance management behaviors.
Johnson and Bany have identified four kinds of facilitation behavior: (1) achieving unity and cooperation; (2) establishing standards and coordinating work procedures; (3) using problem solving to improve conditions; and (4) changing established patterns of group behavior. They have identified three kinds of maintenance behavior: (1) maintaining and restoring morale;
(2) handling conflict; and (3) minimizing management problems. Although we cannot give a full description of these managerial behaviors-Johnson and Bany used over four hundred pages in doing that-a very brief explanation of each behavior is presented here.
As was noted earlier, Johnson and Bany argue that achieving classroom group unity and cooperation is a worthy and necessary goal if the teacher is to help the group to be maximally effective. Group cohesiveness is viewed as a critical prerequisite to productive group norms. Because cohesiveness is largely dependent on group members liking one another and liking the group, the task of the teacher is to make group membership attractive and satisfying. Johnson and Bany assert that cohesiveness is dependent on the amount and frequency of student interaction and communication, the kind of structure that exists within the group, and the extent to which motives and goals are shared. It follows, then, that the teacher should: encourage student interaction and communication by providing opportunities for students to work with one another and to discuss their ideas and feelings; accept and support all students while creating a structure within which each student develops a strong sense of belonging; and help students develop and recognize shared goals.
Establishing standards and coordinating work procedures are among the most important-and the most difficult-of the teacher's responsibilities. Standards of conduct specify appropriate behaviors in given situations; work procedures are those standards that apply to interactive instructional processes. For example, a behavioral standard might involve the behavior prescribed for students as they stand in the cafeteria line or as they pass out of the classroom during a fire drill. A work procedure might refer to the behavior expected of students when they are finished with seatwork assignments or when they wish to ask the teacher a question. Clearly, effective instruction is dependent upon the extent to which the teacher is able to establish appropriate standards and the extent to which the teacher is able to facilitate student adherence to those standards-the extent to which they become group norms.
Johnson and Bany emphasize the importance of group decision methods as a means of establishing behavioral standards and gaining adherence to those standards. Standards that are accepted by the group become group norms. In a cohesive group, there is a great deal of pressure on members to conform to those norms. Thus, the effective classroom group is one in which desirable standards and work procedures are accepted group norms.
The use of group problem-solving discussions to improve classroom conditions-and to promote the development of group norms-is a strategy highly recommended by Johnson and Bany and other advocates of the group process approach. The problem-solving process is viewed somewhat differently by different authors but, for the most part, may be thought of as consisting of: (1) identifying the problem; (2) analyzing the problem; (3) evaluating alternative solutions;
(4) selecting and implementing a solution; and (5) obtaining feedback and evaluating the solution. The basic premise underlying this strategy is that students, given the opportunity, skills, and guidance necessary, can and will make good, responsible decisions regarding their classroom behavior. This premise suggests that the teacher should provide students with the opportunity to engage in group problem-solving discussions; should foster the development of student
problem-solving skills; and should guide students in the problem-solving process.
Changing established patterns of group behavior involves the use of planned-change techniques similar to those of group problem solving. However, the difference is that the purpose of the problem-solving process is to find a solution to a problem, while the purpose of the
planned-change process is to gain acceptance of an already determined solution. Thus, the planned-change process is one of improving conditions by substituting appropriate goals for inappropriate goals. The notion is that group goals exert a strong influence upon the behavior of group members, and when group goals are in conflict with those of instruction, students behave inappropriately. Therefore, it is necessary for the teacher to help the group replace inappropriate goals and behaviors with more appropriate ones, goals that satisfy group needs and that are consistent with those of the school.
Johnson and Bany argue that group planning is the best process to use for changing inappropriate goals and behors to more appropriate ones. Their viewpoint is based on the assumption that such changes are much more likely to be accomplished and accepted if members of the group have participated in the decision to change. This suggests that the role of the teacher is to help students understand the goal to be achieved; to involve students in discussions that result in an examination of various plans for achieving the goals, selecting a plan, and identifying tasks that need to be performed; to implement the plan and perform the necessary tasks; and to assess the plan's effectiveness. During the planned-change process, the teacher encourages group acceptance of externally established goals. Students are engaged in decisions regarding the strategies to be used in achieving those goals.
Simply put, then, the facilitation management behaviors of the teacher consist of:
(1) encouraging the development of group cohesiveness; (2) promoting the acceptance of productive standards of conduct; (3) facilitating the resolution of problems through the use of group problem-solving processes; and (4) fostering appropriate group goals, norms, and behaviors. The intent of these facilitative management behaviors is the improvement of those classroom conditions that promote effective instruction. Maintenance management behaviors are intended to restore and maintain those classroom conditions. Descriptions of the three types identified by Johnson and Bany follow.
As was suggested earlier, the ability to maintain and restore morale is important because the level of classroom group morale greatly influences group productivity. A group with high morale is far more likely to be productive than a group with low morale. Facilitation behaviors build morale. However, the effective teacher recognizes that many factors can cause morale to fluctuate. Thus, the teacher should understand the factors that influence morale and exhibit those behaviors that preserve high morale. Johnson and Bany note that morale is affected by the level of cohesiveness, the amount of interaction and communication, the extent to which members have shared goals, the extent to which the group's goal-directed efforts are hindered, and environmental conditions that cause anxiety and stress or otherwise affect the group adversely.
Thus, the task of the teacher may be viewed as twofold: (1) the teacher should act to rebuild morale; this includes fostering cohesiveness, encouraging increased interaction and communication, and promoting shared goals; and (2) the teacher should act to reduce anxiety and relieve stress; this includes fostering cooperation rather than competition, exhibiting shared leadership, eliminating extremely frustrating and threatening situations, neutralizing disruptive influences, and clarifying stress situations through discussion. Crucial to the teacher's effectiveness is the extent to which the teacher is accepted and trusted by the students. The teacher cannot hope to be successful in restoring morale if students perceive him or her as part of the problem or if his or her behavior creates new problems. The use of punishment is an all too common example of the latter.
Handling conflict in the classroom group is among the most difficult tasks a teacher faces. Hostile, aggressive student behaviors are emotion laden, disruptive, and irritating, especially when directed toward the teacher. But conflict and hostility must be viewed as a normal result of the interactive processes that occur in the classroom. It is not realistic to expect otherwise. Indeed, in the initial phases of a group's development, it is not unusual and can be constructive.
There are many causes of conflict. Primary among them is frustration. When the group is hindered or blocked in achieving its goal, the result is frustration. Feelings of frustration manifest themselves as hostility and aggression-or as withdrawal and apathy. The effective teacher should be able to recognize and deal with such problems quickly.
Johnson and Bany suggest a process for resolving a conflict: (1) set guidelines for discussion;
(2) clarify what happened; (3) explore differences in points of view; (4) identify the cause or causes of the conflict; (5) develop agreements regarding the cause or causes of the conflict and regarding resolution of the conflict; (6) specify a plan of action; and (7) make a positive appraisal of group efforts. To prevent conflict, the teacher is encouraged to reduce frustrations as much as possible by making it possible for the group to set and reach reasonable goals.
If they are to minimize problems, teachers must understand their classroom group and must be able to anticipate the influence various environmental factors will have on that group. In minimizing management problems, the effective teacher utilizes two major strategies: (1) to use facilitation and maintenance behaviors to establish and maintain an effectively functioning, goal-directed classroom group; and (2) to diagnose and analyze the health of the classroom group continuously and to act on the basis of that diagnosis. For example symptoms of disunity call for teacher behaviors intended to promote group cohesiveness. Symptoms of inappropriate norms call for teacher behaviors intended to change those norms to more appropriate ones. In addition, certain types of problems-the new student and the substitute teacher for example-can and should be anticipated. The teacher should help the class prepare for such possibilities.
Effective classroom management, according to Johnson and Bany, involves the ability of the teacher to establish the conditions that enable the classroom group to be productive-and the ability to maintain those conditions. The latter involves the ability to maintain a high level of morale, to resolve conflict, and to minimize management problems. Implicit is the need to build good communication, to establish positive interpersonal relationships, and to satisfy both individual and group needs. The overriding emphasis is on the ability of' the teacher to use group methods of management, for these behaviors determine the effectiveness of the group and the success of instruction.
So far in this section three somewhat different viewpoints regarding the group process approach to classroom management-the views of Kounin, Schmuck and Schmuck, and Johnson and Bany-have been presented. A brief examination of several additional ideas from the work of Glasser (1969) and several others completes the viewpoints presented in this section. The strategies discussed here are: (1) employing classroom meetings; (2) involving students in decision making; (3) resolving conflicts through discussion and negotiation; and (4) employing role playing.
Employing Classroom Meetings. Many advocates of the group process approach argue that group behavior problems are best addressed through the use of the class as a problem-solving group under the guidance of the teacher. If each student can be helped to realize that he or she is a member of a working, problem-solving group and that he or she has both individual and group responsibilities, it is likely that discussions of group problems will lead to the resolution of those problems. Without such help students tend to evade problems, depend on others to solve their problems, or withdraw. The social-problem-solving classroom meeting is intended to provide the assistance students need in this regard. It is a viewpoint shared by most advocates of the
group process approach and best described by Glasser. He suggests three guidelines to enhance the potential effectiveness of social-problem-solving classroom meetings:
1. Any group problem may be discussed; a problem may be introduced by a student or the teacher.
2. The discussion should be directed toward solving the problem; the atmosphere should be nonjudgmental and nonpunitive; the solution should not include punishment or fault finding.
3. The meeting should be conducted with the teacher and students seated in a tight circle; meetings should be held often; meetings should not exceed 30 to 45 minutes, depending upon the age of the students.
A classroom meeting is a student-centered discussion in which a group of students attempts to solve a group problem with the guidance of the teacher. A classroom meeting affords students an opportunity to share thoughts and feelings, identify and clarify group problems, propose and analyze alternative solutions, and commit themselves to a plan of action they believe has the potential to solve a group problem. Brown (1971), Clarizio (1980), Curwin and Mendler (1980), Dreikurs and Cassel (1972), Glasser (1969), Johnson and Bany (1970), Rice (1974), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Stanford (1980), Wallen and Wallen (1978), Weber and Roff (1983), and Wolfgang and Glickman (1986) argue that classroom meetings are an effective managerial strategy. Several of these authors-Johnson and Bany (1970), Stanford (1980), and Schmuck and
Schmuck (1979)-report studies supporting this argument. The reader who wishes to be more fully informed about these views should refer to Glasser's book, Schools Without Failure.
Involving Students in Decision Making. Many authors suggest that students should be involved in making decisions related to classroom-group goals and standards of behavior (Brown, 1971; Charles, 1992; Clarizio, 1980; Davis, 1974; Dreikurs and Cassel, 1972; Faust, 1977; Ginott, 1972; Glasser, 1969; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Grey, 1974; Johnson and Bany, 1970; Jones, 1980; Lemlech, 1979; Stanford, 1980; Tanner, 1978; Welch and Halfacre, 1978; and Wolfgang and Glickman, 1986). Ginott (1972, page 91) suggests that students should have
“a voice and a choice.” Charles (1992) says that teachers must give students a say in setting standards and deciding consequences. Despite wide support for involving students in decisions relating to group goals, standards of behavior, and consequences, it appears that this area is largely unresearched.
Resolving Conflicts through Discussion and Negotiation. Conflict resolution is a process whereby a teacher may constructively work-through discussion and negotiation-with an individual student who is not behaving appropriately. It is viewed as a strategy for clarifying expectations and procedures so as to produce mutually acceptable solutions to a conflict. Although there appears to be an absence of studies of the effectiveness of conflict resolution strategies, there are a number of proponents of those strategies (Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Dreikurs and Cassel, 1972; Gordon with Burch, 1974; Johnson and Bany, 1970; Jones, 1980; and Stanford, 1980).
Employing Role Playing. Role playing or sociodrama is a process in which a few students assume roles and act out a situation while the rest of the class observes. It is argued that role playing can be helpful in dealing with classroom misbehavior by making students more aware of behaviors that are acceptable and unacceptable in various situations, by helping students note the effect of various behaviors on others, and by encouraging discussions concerning various ways of changing undesirable behavior. Role playing helps students learn social skills and learn to deal with problem situations (Blackham and Silberman, 1971; Brown, 1971; Curwin and Mendler, 1980; Davis, 1974; Jones, 1980; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979; Stanford, 1980;
and Wallen and Wallen, 1978). The effectiveness of role playing appears to be fairly
well-established by empirical studies that have investigated its impact in classroom settings (Blackham and Silberman, 1971; and Schmuck and Schmuck, 1979).
In summary, it appears that the teacher who wishes to develop a behavioral repertoire that draws on the group process approach would consider the advantages of the following strategies:
(1) exhibiting withitness behaviors; (2) exhibiting overlapping behaviors; (3) maintaining group focus; (4) fostering reasonable, clearly understood expectations; (5) sharing leadership;
(6) fostering open communication; (7) fostering attraction; (8) establishing and maintaining group morale; (9) developing cooperation; (10) fostering group cohesiveness; (11) promoting productive group norms; (12) employing classroom meetings; (13) involving students in decision making; (14) resolving conflicts through discussion and negotiation; and (15) employing role playing.
This section has provided an overview of the group process approach. Space limitations preclude a more detailed treatment of the subject. It is recommended that the reader who wishes to explore this topic in more detail refer to the work of Schmuck and Schmuck, Johnson and Bany, Kounin, and Glasser. An excellent source of practical suggestions related to classroom group development is a book by Stanford (1980).
Resources
www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6375/SocEm.htm - 36k -
The Behavior Modification Classroom Management Approach
As discussed earlier, the behavior modification approach is based on principles from behavioral psychology. The major principle underlying this approach is that behavior is learned. This applies both to appropriate and to inappropriate behavior. Advocates of the behavior modification approach contend that a student behaves appropriately for one of two reasons: (1) the student has learned to behave appropriately; or (2) the student has not learned to behave inappropriately. Further, they argue that the student misbehaves for one of two reasons: (1) the student has learned to behave inappropriately; or (2) the student has not learned to behave appropriately. Thus, the role of the teacher is to help students learn to behave appropriately.
Proponents of the behavior modification approach contend that: (1) learning is influenced largely, if not entirely, by events in the environment; and (2) there are four basic strategies-and variations of those strategies-that account for learning. Positive reinforcement, punishment, extinction, and negative reinforcement are the four basic behavior modification managerial strategies. This section discusses a total of twenty behavior modification managerial strategies: (1) utilizing positive reinforcement; (2) utilizing praise and encouragement; (3) utilizing modeling; (4) utilizing shaping; (5) utilizing token economy systems; (6) utilizing contingency contracting; (7) utilizing group contingencies; (8) reinforcing incompatible alternatives;
(9) utilizing behavioral counseling; (10) utilizing self-monitoring; (11) utilizing cues, prompts, and signals; (12) utilizing negative reinforcement; (13) administering punishment; (14) utilizing overcorrection; (15) utilizing response cost; (16) utilizing negative practice; (17) utilizing satiation; (18) utilizing extinction; (19) utilizing fading; and (20) utilizing time out.
The Socioemotional Climate Classroom Management Approach
The socioemotional climate approach to classroom management has its roots in counseling and clinical psychology and, consequently, places great importance on interpersonal relationships.
It builds on the assumption that learning takes place best in a positive socioemotional climate, that socioemotional climate is a function of teacher-student interpersonal relationships, and that the teacher-not the student-is the major determiner of the nature of that relationship-and of the classroom climate. Consequently, the central managerial task of the teacher is to build positive interpersonal relationships and, consequently, to promote a positive socioemotional climate.
Ten socioemotional climate strategies are discussed here: (1) fostering positive interpersonal relationships; (2) communicating genuineness; (3) communicating empathic understanding;
(4) communicating acceptance: (5) utilizing effective communication; (6) exhibiting active listening; (7) utilizing humor; (8) utilizing reality therapy; (9) developing a democratic classroom; and (10) employing logical consequences.
The Group Process Classroom Management Approach
As noted earlier, the group process approach-also known as the sociopsychological approach-is based on principles from social psychology and group dynamics. The major
premise underlying the group process approach is based on the following assumptions:
(1) instruction takes place within a group context-the classroom group; (2) the classroom group is a social system with the characteristics of other social systems; and (3) the teacher has the capacity to establish and maintain a productive social system-a productive classroom group. Thus, the major role of the teacher is to establish and maintain a productive classroom group. While there is some disagreement concerning the conditions which characterize the effective, productive classroom group and the managerial strategies that foster those conditions, this section examines group managerial strategies that are based on four excellent sources: the work of Kounin (1970), Schmuck and Schmuck (1979), Johnson and Bany (1970), and Glasser (1969).
Fifteen group managerial strategies are examined in this section: (1) exhibiting withitness behaviors; (2) exhibiting overlapping behaviors; (3) maintaining group focus; (4) fostering reasonable, clearly understood expectations; (5) sharing leadership; (6) fostering open communication; (7) fostering attraction; (8) establishing and maintaining group morale;
(9) developing cooperation; (10) fostering group cohesiveness; (11) promoting productive group norms; (12) employing classroom meetings; (13) involving students in decision making;
(14) resolving conflicts through discussion and negotiation; and (15) employing role playing.
Resources
www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6375/SocEm.htm - 36k -