ENGLISH WORD FORMATION

by Antung Firmandana

INTRODUCTION
In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases.
DISCUSSION
Word Compounding
A compound word is made up of two or more words that together express a single idea. There are three types of compounds. An open compound consists of two or more words written separately, such as salad dressing, Boston terrier, or April Fools’ Day. A hyphenated compound has words connected by a hyphen, such as age-old, mother-in-law, force-feed. A solid compound consists of two words that are written as one word, such as keyboard or typewriter. In addition, a compound may be classified as permanent or temporary. A permanent compound is fixed by common usage and can usually be found in the dictionary, whereas a temporary compound consists of two or more words joined by a hyphen as needed, usually to modify another word or to avoid ambiguity. In general, permanent compounds begin as temporary compounds that become used so frequently they become established as permanent compounds. Likewise many solid compounds begin as separate words, evolve into hyphenated compounds, and later become solid compounds. Although the dictionary is the first place to look when you are trying to determine the status of a particular compound, reference works do not always agree on the current evolutionary form of a compound, nor do they include temporary compounds. The following general rules apply to forming compounds. Keep in mind that words that are made up of a word root plus a prefix or a suffix are not normally considered compounds, strictly speaking. But for convenience we discuss them here since they are also sometimes hyphenated.
In linguistics, a compound consists of two or more free morphemes (words that can stand on their own and have their own meaning) that combine to form a new word.
Most compounds consist of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and a modifier, which restricts this meaning. A blackboard, for instance, is a particular kind of board (head), namely a black (modifier) board. In English, the right-hand component is the head, and the left-hand element is the modifier. Some compounds, however, have more than one head or no head at all (see below).
If head and modifier do not belong to the same word class, the compound generally belongs to word class of the head. For example, black is an adjective and board is a noun. The compound blackboard is a noun, just like its head. Board black, however, would be an adjective. There are exceptions to this rule, though, especially when the elements of the compound belong to word class such as auxiliary verbs or grammatical particles. Must have should be a verb since its head is a verb, but it is a noun. Have-not is also a noun, and a particle should not even be the head.
While inflection and derivation of compounds is possible, the inflection or derivation of its elements is not. Thus, a mouse trap is possible, and mice trap is not.
Compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the word classes or the semantic relationship of their components.





Examples by word class
Modifier Head Compound
noun noun football
adjective noun blackboard
verb noun breakwater
preposition noun underworld
noun adjective snow white
adjective adjective blue-green
verb adjective tumbledown
preposition adjective over-ripe
noun verb browbeat
adjective verb highlight
verb verb freeze-dry
preposition verb undercut
noun preposition love-in
adjective preposition forthwith
verb preposition takeout
preposition preposition without
Compound noun
Most English compound nouns are nouns modified by adjectives or attributive nouns. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily distinguished, however. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining two words at a time. The compound science fiction writer, for example, can be constructed by combining science and fiction, and then combining the resulting compound with writer. Some compounds, such as salt and pepper or mother-of-pearl, can not be constructed in this way, however.
Types of compound nouns
Since English is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, English creates compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact that the written representation of long compounds always contains blanks. Short compounds may be written in three different ways, which do not correspond to different pronunciations, however:
• The solid or closed form in which two usually moderately short words appear together as one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short (monosyllabic) units that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, etc.
• The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes, such as house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)(ness), as well as adjective-adjective compounds and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dry, are often hyphenated. Compounds that contain particles, such as mother-of-pearl and salt-and pepper, are also often hyphenated.
• The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer words, such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis, etc.
Usage in the U.S. and in the UK differs and often depends on the individual choice of the writer rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, open, hyphenated, and closed forms may be encountered for the same compound noun, such as the triplets container ship/container-ship/containership and particle board/particle-board/odd-looking particleboard.
In addition to this native English compounding, there is the classical type, which consists of words derived from Latin, as horticulture, and those of Greek origin, such as photography, the components of which are in bound form (connected by connecting vowels, which are most often -i- and -o- in Latin and Greek respectively) and cannot stand alone.
Analyzability (transparency)
In general, the meaning of a compound noun is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive compounds, also known as karmadharaya compounds or endocentric compounds, in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board which is black, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a footstool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting on, but that is not its primary purpose.) In a similar manner, the office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in other languages. Compounds of this type are also known as tatpurusha compounds or exocentric compounds. In compounds of this type, their is no obvious (semantic) head.
These two types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well. Coordinative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of a specialization. Bosnia-Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter-bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day-by-day and go-go-go are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
The meaning of bahuvrihi compounds, however, is less obviously a combination of the meanings of its elements, and more of a metaphor. A blockhead, for example, is not someone with a square or particularly hard head, but someone who is thick as a brick. Likewise, a lionheart is someone brave.
Analyzability may be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For instance, the word butterfly, commonly thought to be a metathesis for flutter by, which the bugs do, is actually based on an old bubbe-maise that butterflies are petite witches that steal butter from windowsills. Cranberry is a part translation from German, which is why we cannot recognize the element cran (from the German kraan or kroon, "crane"). The ladybird or ladybug was named after the Christian expression "our Lady, the Virgin Mary".
In the case of verb+noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject (grammar) or the object of the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object in callgirl (someone calls the girl).
Sound patterns
A black board is any board that is black, and equal prosodic stress can be found on both elements (or, according to psycholinguist Steven Pinker, the second one is accented more heavily. A blackboard, the compound, may have started out as any other black board, but now is a thing that is constructed in a particular way, of a particular material and serves a particular purpose; the word is clearly accented on the first syllable.
Sound patterns, such as stresses placed on particular syllables, may indicate whether the word group is a compound or whether it is an adjective-+-noun phrase. A compound usually has a falling intonation: "bláckboard," the "Whíte House", as opposed to the phrases "bláck bóárd". (Note that this rule does not apply in all contexts. For example, the stress pattern "whíte house" would be expected for the compound, which happens to be a proper name, but it is also found in the emphatic negation "No, not the black house; the white house!"
Other languages
Most natural languages have compound nouns and adjectives.

It is to be noted, however, that in the Latin-based languages shown the left-hand component is often the categorical part of the compound and is therefore the head while the right-hand component is the modifier, as in rascacielos, grattacielo, gratte-ciel, lavacristallo, etc.
In French, furthermore, compound nouns are often formed by left-hand heads with prepositional components inserted before the modifier thus indicating derivative or by means of, as in chemin-de-fer and moulin à vent, etc.

Spanish: The third-person present indicative form of a verb combined with a plural direct object can form a compound. Other times, two nouns can be combined or an adjective can be combined with a noun:
• Rascacielos ("skyscraper"): rascar, "to scratch/scrape", + cielos, "skies"
• Ciencia-ficción ("science fiction"): ciencia, "science", + ficción, "fiction" (This word is a calque from the English expression science fiction. In English, the head of a compound word is the last morpheme: science fiction. Conversely, the Spanish head is located at the front, so ciencia ficción sounds like a kind of fictional science rather than scientific fiction.)
• Ciempiés ("centipede"): cien, "hundred", + pies, "feet"
• Ferrocarril ("railway"): ferro, "iron", + carril, "lane"
Italian
• Grattacielo ("skyscraper"): grattare, "to scratch/scrape", + cielo, "sky"
• Centopiedo ("centipede"): cento, "hundred", + piedi, "feet"
• Ferrovia ("railway"): ferro, "iron", + via, "way"
• Lavacristallo ("windscreen"): lavare, "to wash", + cristallo, "crystal, (pane of) glass"
French:
• Gratte-ciel ("skyscraper"): gratter, "scratch/scrape", + ciel, "sky"
• Chemin-de-fer ("railway"): chemin, "way", + de, "of", + fer, "iron"
• Moulin à vent ("windmill"): moulin, "mill", + à, "by means of", + vent "wind"
• Grille-pain ("toaster"): Griller, "to toast", + pain, "bread"
German:
• Wolkenkratzer ("skyscraper"): wolken, "clouds", + kratzer, "scraper"
• Eisenbahn ("railway"): Eisen, "iron", + bahn, "track"
• Kraftfahrzeug ("automobile"): Kraft, "power", + fahren/fahr, "drive", + zeug. "machinery"
• Stacheldraht ("barbed wire"): stachel, "barb/barbed", + "draht, "wire"
The longest compounds in the world may be found in Finnish and Germanic languages, such as Swedish. German examples include Kontaktlinsenverträglichkeitstest ("contact-lens compatibility test") and the jocular Rheindampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapitänsstellvertreter ("Rhine steamship-company vice-captain").
Compound adjective
So it is with compound adjectives, as they are constructed in a very similar way to the compound noun. Blackboard jungle, leftover ingredients, gunmetal sheen, and green monkey disease are only a few examples. A compound adjective is a modifier of a noun. It consists of two or more morphemes of which the left-hand component limits or changes the modification of the right-hand one, as in "the dark-green dress": dark limits the green that modifies dress.
Solid compound adjectives
• There are some well-established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eyecatching, and downtown.
• However, in British usage, these, apart from downtown, are more likely written with a hyphen: ear-splitting, eye-catching.
• Numbers that are spelled out and have the suffix -fold added: "fifteenfold", "sixfold".
• northwest, northwester, northwesterly, northwestwards, but not North-West Frontier.
Hyphenated compound adjectives
A compound adjective is hyphenated if the hyphen helps the reader differentiate a compound adjective from two adjacent adjectives that each independently modify the noun. Compare the following examples:
• "acetic acid solution": a bitter solution producing vinegar or acetic acid (acetic + acid + solution)
• "acetic-acid solution": a solution of acetic acid
The hyphen is unneeded when capitalization or italicization makes grouping clear:
• "old English scholar": an old person who is English and a scholar, or an old scholar who studies English
• "Old English scholar": a scholar of Old English.
• "De facto proceedings" (not "de-facto"?)
If, however, there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen: "Sunday morning walk".
Hyphenated compound adjectives may have been formed originally by an adjective preceding a noun:
• "Round table" ?> "round-table discussion"
• "Blue sky" ?> "blue-sky law"
• "Red light" ?> "red-light district"
• "Four wheels" ?> "four-wheel drive" (the singular, not the plural, is used)
Others may have originated with a verb preceding an adjective or adverb:
• "Feel good" ?> "feel-good factor"
• "Buy now, pay later" ?> "buy-now pay-later purchase"
Yet others are created with an original verb preceding a preposition.
• "Stick on" ?> "stick-on label"
• "Walk on" ?> "walk-on part"
• "Stand by" ?> "stand-by fare"
• "Roll on, roll off" ?> "roll-on roll-off ferry"
The following compound adjectives are always hyphenated when they are not written as one word:
An adjective preceding a noun to which -d or -ed has been added as a past-participle construction:
• "loud-mouthed yob"
• "middle-aged lady"
• "rose-tinted glasses"
A noun, adjective, or adverb preceding a present participle:
• "an awe-inspiring personality"
• "a long-lasting affair"
• "a far-reaching decision"
Numbers spelled out or as numerics:
• "seven-year itch"
• "five-sided polygon"
• "20th-century poem"
• "30-piece band"
• "tenth-story window"
A numeric with the affix -fold has a hyphen (15-fold), but when spelled out takes a solid construction (fifteenfold).
Numbers, spelled out or numeric, with added -odd: sixteen-odd", 70-odd.
Compound adjectives with high- or low-: "high-level discussion", "low-price markup".
Colours in compounds:
• "a dark-blue sweater"
• "a reddish-orange dress".
Fractions as modifiers are hyphenated: "five-eighths inches", but if numerator or denominator are already hyphenated, the fraction itself does not take a hyphen: "a thirty-three thousandth part". Fractions used as nouns have no hyphens: "I ate only one third of the pie."
Comparatives and superlatives in compound adjectives also take hyphens:
• "the highest-placed competitor"
• "a shorter-term loan"
However, a construction with most is not hyphenated:
"the most respected member".
Compounds including two geographical modifiers:
• "Afro-Cuban"
• "African-American" (sometimes)
• "Anglo-Asian"
But not
• "Central American".
The following compound adjectives are not normally hyphenated:
Where there is no risk of ambiguity:
• "a Sunday morning walk".
Left-hand components of a compound adjective that end in -ly that modify right-hand components that are past participles (ending in -ed):
• "a hotly disputed subject"
• "a greatly improved scheme"
• "a distantly related celebrity"
Compound adjectives that include comparatives and superlatives with more, most, less or least:
• "a more recent development"
• "the most respected member"
• "a less opportune moment"
• "the least expected event"
Ordinarily hyphenated compounds with preposition and a verb, although other combinations also exist. The term compound verb was first used in publication in Grattan and Gurrey's Our Living Language (1925).
From a morphological point of view, some compound verbs are difficult to analyze because several derivations are plausible. Blacklist, for instance, might be analyzed as a adjective+verb compound, or as an adjective+noun compound that becomes a verb through zero derivation. Most compound verbs originally have the collective meaning of both components, but some of them later gain additional meanings that may predominate the original, accurate sense. Therefore, sometimes the resultant meanings are seemingly barely related to the original contributors.
Compound verbs composed of a noun and verb are comparatively rare, and the noun is generally not the direct object of the verb. In English, compounds such as *bread-bake or *car-drive do not exist.
Hyphenation
Compound verbs with single-syllable modifiers are solid, or unhyphenated. Those with longer modifiers may originally be hyphenated, but as they became established, they became solid, e.g.,
• overhang (English origin)
• counterattack (Latin origin)
There was a tendency in the 18th century to use hyphens excessively, that is, to hyphenate all previously established solid compound verbs. American English, however, has diminished the use of hyphens, while British English is more conservative.
Phrasal verbs
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs. Consider the following:
I held up my hand.
I held up a bank.
I held my hand up.
*I held a bank up.
The first three sentences are possible in English; the last one is unlikely, except for Kryptonians. When to hold up means to raise, it is a prepositional verb; the preposition up can be detached from the verb and has its own individual meaning "from lower to a higher position". As a prepositional verb, it has a literal meaning. But when to hold up means to rob, it is a phrasal verb. A phrasal verb is used in an idiomatic, figurative or even metaphorical context. The preposition is inextricably linked to the verb, the meaning of each word cannot be determined independently but is in fact part of the idiom.
The Oxford English Grammar (ISBN 0-19-861250-8) distinguishes seven types of prepositional or phrasal verbs in English:
• intransitive phrasal verbs (e.g. give in)
• transitive phrasal verbs (e.g. find out [discover])
• monotransitive prepositional verbs (e.g. look after [care for])
• doubly transitive prepositional verbs (e.g. blame [something] on [someone])
• copular prepositional verbs. (e.g. serve as)
• monotransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. look up to [respect])
• doubly transitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. put [something] down to [someone] [attribute to])
English has a number of other kinds of compound verb idioms. There are compound verbs with two verbs (e.g. make do). These too can take idiomatic prepositions (e.g. get rid of). There are also idiomatic combinations of verb and adjective (e.g. come true, run amok) and verb and adverb (make sure), verb and fixed noun (e.g. go ape); and these, too, may have fixed idiomatic prepositions (e.g. take place on).
Misuses of the term
"Compound verb" is often used in place of:
1. "complex verb", a type of complex phrase. But this usage is not accepted in linguistics, because "compound" and "complex" are not synonymous.
2. "verb phrase" or "verbal phrase". This is a partially, but not entirely, incorrect use. A phrasal verb can be a one-word verb, of which compound verb is a type. However, many phrasal verbs are multi-word.
3. "phrasal verb". A sub-type of verb phrase, which have a particle as a word before or after the verb.

Compound verbs
modifier head examples
preposition verb overrate, underline, outrun
adverb verb downsize, upgrade
adjective verb whitewash, blacklist, foulmouth
noun verb browbeat, sidestep, manhandle
preposition noun out-Herod, out-fox
A compound verb is usually composed of a preposition and a verb, although other combinations also exist. The term compound verb was first used in publication in Grattan and Gurrey's Our Living Language (1925).

From a morphological point of view, some compound verbs are difficult to analyze because several derivations are plausible. Blacklist, for instance, might be analyzed as a adjective+verb compound, or as an adjective+noun compound that becomes a verb through zero derivation. Most compound verbs originally have the collective meaning of both components, but some of them later gain additional meanings that may predominate the original, accurate sense. Therefore, sometimes the resultant meanings are seemingly barely related to the original contributors.

Compound verbs composed of a noun and verb are comparatively rare, and the noun is generally not the direct object of the verb. In English, compounds such as *bread-bake or *car-drive do not exist.
Hyphenation
Compound verbs with single-syllable modifiers are solid, or unhyphenated. Those with longer modifiers may originally be hyphenated, but as they became established, they became solid, e.g.,
• overhang (English origin)
• counterattack (Latin origin)
There was a tendency in the 18th century to use hyphens excessively, that is, to hyphenate all previously established solid compound verbs. American English, however, has diminished the use of hyphens, while British English is more conservative.
Phrasal verbs
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs. Consider the following:
I held up my hand.
I held up a bank.
I held my hand up.
*I held a bank up.
The first three sentences are possible in English; the last one is unlikely, except for Kryptonians. When to hold up means to raise, it is a prepositional verb; the preposition up can be detached from the verb and has its own individual meaning "from lower to a higher position". As a prepositional verb, it has a literal meaning. But when to hold up means to rob, it is a phrasal verb. A phrasal verb is used in an idiomatic, figurative or even metaphorical context. The preposition is inextricably linked to the verb, the meaning of each word cannot be determined independently but is in fact part of the idiom.

The Oxford English Grammar (ISBN 0-19-861250-8) distinguishes seven types of prepositional or phrasal verbs in English:
• intransitive phrasal verbs (e.g. give in)
• transitive phrasal verbs (e.g. find out [discover])
• monotransitive prepositional verbs (e.g. look after [care for])
• doubly transitive prepositional verbs (e.g. blame [something] on [someone])
• copular prepositional verbs. (e.g. serve as)
• monotransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. look up to [respect])
• doubly transitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. put [something] down to [someone] [attribute to])
English has a number of other kinds of compound verb idioms. There are compound verbs with two verbs (e.g. make do). These too can take idiomatic prepositions (e.g. get rid of). There are also idiomatic combinations of verb and adjective (e.g. come true, run amok) and verb and adverb (make sure), verb and fixed noun (e.g. go ape); and these, too, may have fixed idiomatic prepositions (e.g. take place on).
Misuses of the term
"Compound verb" is often used in place of:
1. "complex verb", a type of complex phrase. But this usage is not accepted in linguistics, because "compound" and "complex" are not synonymous.
2. "verb phrase" or "verbal phrase". This is a partially, but not entirely, incorrect use. A phrasal verb can be a one-word verb, of which compound verb is a type. However, many phrasal verbs are multi-word.
3. "phrasal verb". A sub-type of verb phrase, which have a particle as a word before or after the verb.
Compound Adverb
Compound adverb is something you will never know because it is made up! An adverb is a modifier.

Introduction
We are going to punctuate simple (one-clause) sentences containing conjunctive adverbs.
We are also going to punctuate simple compound sentences (two independent clauses)
containing conjunctive adverbs.
The Conjunctive Adverb
We will now investigate the conjunctive adverb, learn its function, and its punctuation. We
have dozens of conjunctive adverbs in the English language. Let's look at a few of the
most common ones.
HOWEVER, the schedule had already been arranged.
MOREOVER, the teams had no choice concerning home field.
THUS, the team would have to forfeit the game.
AS A MATTER OF FACT, their pride would not let them forfeit the game.
THEN the team decided to call a time-out.
Note the lack of comma punctuation in the last sentence.
Many textbooks differentiate between "conjunctive adverbs" and "transitional expressions."
We won't. We will simplify matters by stating that if a conjunction is neither subordinating
nor co-ordinating, we will treat it as a conjunctive adverb.
Listed below are some conjunctive adverbs that we encounter quite often.
List:
As a result, before that, besides, briefly, by contrast, certainly, concurrently, consequently,
earlier, finally;
first (etc.)*, for example, formerly, further, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in all,
in a word, indeed;
in fact, instead, in summary, later, lastly (etc.)*, likewise, momentarily, moreover, namely,
nevertheless, next;
none the less, now, nowadays, of course, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise,
previously, really, similarly;
simultaneously, still, subsequently, that is, then, therefore, thus.
*Include all words such as second, third, last, etc., and words such as firstly, secondly,
finally, etc.
The above list of conjunctive adverbs is not exhaustive. Many, many more exist. As a
matter of fact, you may create your own conjunctive adverbs to suit your particular needs.
It would be impossible for anyone to memorize them all. Luckily, we have memorized the
lists of co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Thus, identifying
conjunctive adverbs should prove quite easy.
If a conjunction is neither co-ordinating nor subordinating, call it a
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB.
Function
We use conjunctive adverbs to join ideas of equal value. But in joining these equal ideas,
we want to show a strong relationship. A conjunctive adverb joins mutually dependent but
equal ideas. The ideas may reside in separate sentences or in the same sentence.
Separate Sentences
Following are some examples of conjunctive adverbs providing mutual support or
dependency of various kinds. Notice that the support may span across sentences.
Chronological (time) support:
John refused to apply for the job. SUBSEQUENTLY, he regretted his decision.
Summation Support:
John refused to apply for the job. IN A WORD, he lived to regret his decision.
Explanation (reasons) support:
John refused to apply for the job. INDEED, he said it was not suitable to his talents.
Notice in the connected ideas above that unless we present the first idea (sentence), we
have no justification to write the second idea (sentence). Ideas connected by conjunctive
adverbs cannot intelligently exist alone.
Punctuation
We place commas after conjunctive adverbs that start sentences.
Within Sentences
Following are some examples of conjunctive adverbs providing mutual support and
dependency of various kinds within the same sentence.
Contrast Support:
John refused to apply for the job; HOWEVER, he pretended to look for one.
Cause and Effect Support:
John refused to apply for the job; AS A RESULT, his financial situation worsened.
Reinforcement (adding reasons) Support:
John refused to apply for the job; MOREOVER, he wouldn't even discuss why.
Notice in the connected ideas that the second idea is dependent on the first. The
conjunctive adverb creates this mutual dependency or relationship.
Punctuation
When a conjunctive adverb joins two independent clauses, the conjunctive adverb takes a
semicolon in front of it and a comma after. The clause pattern is
Independent ; conjunctive adverb , independent.
Exception
We do not use a comma with the conjunctive adverb "then" regardless of whether "then"
starts a sentence or joins two independent clauses. Look at the following examples.
"We had checked the ledger thoroughly. THEN we mailed the invoices."
"We had checked the ledger thoroughly; THEN we mailed the invoices."
The clause pattern is
Independent ; conjunctive adverb independent.
CAUTION:
Here's another one. Read the sentence; follow the steps; then solve your punctuation
problem.
Sentence:
"The ambulance raced down the street however and stopped just in time."
We identify the verb "raced."
We identify "ambulance" as the subject of "raced."
We identify another verb, "stopped."
We identify "ambulance" as the subject of "stopped" also.
The sentence now looks like this:
Indep
The ambulance raced down the street however and stopped just in time.
Solution
We have a single subject and a compound verb--a single independent clause. The word
"however" is not a conjunctive adverb. "However" is an interrupter and requires other
punctuation.
The clause pattern is
Independent (no additional punctuation required).
So ensure that you actually have two independent clauses before you start punctuating
words as conjunctive adverbs.
Review
Conjunctive adverbs join equally important but mutually dependent ideas. The ideas need
not exist in the same sentence.
We place commas after conjunctive adverbs that start sentences.
We place semicolons before and commas after conjunctive adverbs that join clauses.
The conjunctive adverb "then" does not take the comma.
Do not confuse interrupters with conjunctive adverbs.
Phrasal verbs and modifying adverbs
When modifying adverbs are used alongside particle adverbs intransitively (as particle adverbs usually are), the adverbs can appear in any verb/particle/adverb positions:
• “He unhappily looked round.”
• “He looked unhappily round.”
• “He looked round unhappily.”
The particle adverb here is "round" and the modifying adverb is "unhappily". ("Round" is a particle because it is not inflected — does not take affixes and alter its form. "Unhappily" is a modifying adverb because it modifies the verb "look").
With a transitive particle verb, the adverb goes either before the verb of after the object or particle, whichever is last:
• “He cheerfully picked the book up.”
• “He picked up the book cheerfully.” (not *picked cheerfully up the book)
• “He picked the book up cheerfully.”
Prepositional verbs are different from transitive particle verbs, because they allow adverbs to appear between the verb and the preposition:
• “He cheerfully looked after the children.
• “He looked after the children cheerfully.
• “He looked cheerfully after the children.
CONCLUSION
In linguistic morphology, a compound is a word (lexeme) that consists of more than one free morpheme. Compounds occur in most or all word classes, including closed word classes. Composition should not be confused with derivation. Due to the differences between natural languages, general statements about compounds are difficult (see morphology).
The meaning of the compound is generally a combination of the meanings of its parts, and it is said to be a transparent compound.. If the meaning of the compound is a combination, the most important element (head, determinatum) may be left-modified or right-modified by another element (modifier, determinans), depending on language. Left-modified languages include Japanese and the Germanic languages, right-modified languages include Tibetan and the Romance languages. If the elements belong to different word classes, the compound generally belongs to the same class as the head.







REFERENCES
http://www.jsoftware.com/help/jforc/loopless_code_ii_adverbs__an.htm
Bamboo web dictionary. Compound verb. http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/c/o/Compound_verb.html
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_a_compound_adverb

Edufind. http://www.edufind.com/English/Grammar/NOUNS4.cfm

Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Phrasal verbs and modifying adverbs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrasal_verb#Phrasal_verbs_and_modifying_adverbs

Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Compound_verb http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_verb
Ottawa University. Compound Verbs http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/vbcmpd.html
Simmons, Robin L. 1997 – 2009. The Compound Verb. http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/compoundverb.htm

Nation Master. Compound verb. http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Compound-verb

Kids,net,Au. Compound verb. http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/co/ Compound_verb
Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Word Formation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation

The American Heritage® Book of English Usage. A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English. 1996. http://www.bartleby.com/64/84.html